Awake!, November 8, 1998

Awake! — November 8, 1998

Source: jw.org

Contents

Page Two

Aids—The Epidemic Continues

Aids—How to Fight It

Aids—What Hope for the Future?

Bridges—How Would We Manage Without Them?

A Bridge Named After Vasco da Gama

Gutenberg—How He Enriched the World!

A Tactful Queen Who Defeated a Scheming Bishop

Exploring the Age-Old Beauty of Wood

Cruelty to Animals—Is It Wrong?

Watching the World

From Our Readers

Delinquent Teens—The Causes?

“Awake! Is the Perfect Material”

Page Two

The Battle Against AIDS—Will It Be Won? 3-9

How is AIDS transmitted? Where is it now more prevalent? Can it be defeated? The opening articles answer these and other questions.

Bridges—How Would We Manage Without Them? 10

We take them for granted. Yet, how different life would be without them! What is their history? Why do they differ in design?

Cruelty to Animals—Is It Wrong? 26

Dogfights, cockfights, horse fights, bullfights—cruelty to animals has been entertainment for humans for thousands of years. What does the Bible say about it?

[Picture Credit Line on page 2]

COVER: Chad Slattery/Tony Stone Images (Model is not associated with subject matter.)

Aids—The Epidemic Continues

KAREN grew up in the western United States.a As one of Jehovah’s Witnesses, she maintained high moral standards throughout her youth. In 1984, when she was 23 years old, she married Bill, who had been a Witness for only two years. They were blessed with two children, a boy and a girl.

By 1991 their love had deepened, and they were content and happy. Late that year, Bill developed a white spot on his tongue that persisted. He visited a doctor.

Shortly after that, Karen and the children were outside raking leaves. Bill sat on the porch step and called Karen to sit beside him. He put his arms around her waist and said with tears in his eyes that he loved her and wanted to live forever with her. Then why the tears? The doctor suspected that Bill had been infected with HIV, the virus that leads to AIDS.

The family was tested. Bill and Karen’s results were positive. Bill had become infected before he became one of Jehovah’s Witnesses; he, in turn, had passed the infection on to Karen. The children’s results were negative. Within three years, Bill was dead. Karen says: “I don’t know how to express what it is like to watch the once handsome man you love and intend to live with forever slowly melt away and shrivel to skin and bones. I cried many nights. He died three months short of our tenth wedding anniversary. He was a good father and a good husband.”

Though a doctor told Karen that she would soon follow her husband into death, she is still alive. The infection has progressed to the early stages of AIDS.

Karen is but one of about 30 million people now living with HIV/AIDS, a figure larger than the combined populations of Australia, Ireland, and Paraguay. Estimates indicate that Africa has 21 million of these victims. According to United Nations figures, by the turn of the century, that number could soar to 40 million people. One UN report says that the disease rivals the greatest epidemics of history. Of the world’s sexually active adults aged 15 to 49, 1 in 100 has already been infected with HIV. Of these, only 1 in 10 realizes that he or she is infected. In some parts of Africa, 25 percent of the adults are infected.

Since the beginning of the epidemic in 1981, an estimated 11.7 million people have died of AIDS. It is estimated that in 1997 alone, about 2.3 million people perished. Nevertheless, there are fresh reasons for optimism in the battle against AIDS. During the past few years, there has been a drop in new AIDS cases in wealthy nations. In addition, promising drugs hold out hope of better health and prolonged life.

How can you protect yourself against AIDS? What are the latest developments in treatment and vaccines? Will the disease ever be vanquished? These questions will be answered in the following articles.

[Footnote]

Names have been changed.

Aids—How to Fight It

AT PRESENT there is no cure for AIDS, and medical science appears unlikely to find one soon. While new treatments delay the progression of the disease, it is far better to avoid infection in the first place. Before we discuss prevention, however, let us consider how the AIDS virus (HIV) is and is not passed from person to person.

A person may be infected in four primary ways: (1) by using a contaminated needle or syringe, (2) through sexual intercourse (vaginal, anal, or oral) with an infected person, (3) by blood transfusions and blood products, although this threat has been reduced in more developed countries where blood is now screened for HIV antibodies, and (4) by his or her HIV-infected mother, who can infect the baby either before or during birth or while breast-feeding.

According to the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), present scientific evidence says that (1) you cannot catch AIDS as you would a cold or the flu, (2) you cannot get it from sitting next to someone who has AIDS or by touching or hugging a person who is infected, (3) you cannot get it by eating food handled, prepared, or served by an infected person, and (4) you cannot get it by sharing toilets, telephones, clothes, or eating and drinking utensils. Moreover, the CDC says that the virus is not transmitted by mosquitoes or any other insect.

Keys to Prevention

The AIDS virus lurks in the blood of infected people. If an infected person receives an injection, some blood along with the virus may be left on the needle or in the syringe. If someone else is injected with a needle that has thus been contaminated, the virus could be passed on. Never be afraid to ask a doctor or a nurse when you are in doubt about a needle or a syringe. You have a right to know; your life is at stake.

The AIDS virus is also present in the semen or the vaginal secretions of infected people. Thus, concerning prevention, the CDC recommends: “Abstinence is the only sure protection. If you do have sexual intercourse, wait until you are in a long-term, mutually faithful relationship, such as marriage, with an uninfected partner.”

Notice that for you to be protected, a “mutually faithful relationship” must be maintained. If you are faithful but your partner is not, you are not protected. This often presents a difficult problem for women who live in societies where they are dominated sexually and economically by men. In some lands women are not even permitted to discuss sex with men, much less to negotiate safer sex practices.

However, not all such women are powerless. A study in one West African land showed that some financially independent women were able, without violent consequences, to withhold sex from their infected husbands. In New Jersey, U.S.A., some women refused sex if the man did not want to wear a condom. Of course, while latex condoms can give protection against HIV and other sexually transmitted diseases, they must be used correctly and consistently.

When to Test

Karen, mentioned in the preceding article, could have done little to protect herself against infection. Her husband was infected several years before their marriage, and they married at a time when the epidemic and HIV testing were in their early stages. Now, however, HIV testing has become a routine procedure in some countries. So if a person has any doubt about his or her status regarding HIV, it is wise to test before entering into courtship. Karen’s advice: “Choose your marriage mate wisely. A wrong choice can cost you dearly, even your life itself.”

Testing may help to protect an innocent mate in cases of adultery. Since HIV might not show up on a test until up to six months after infection, several tests might be necessary. If sexual relations are resumed (thus implying that the adulterer is forgiven), the use of a condom can help safeguard against infection.

How Can Education Help?

It is noteworthy that though the Bible was written long before the emergence of AIDS, living by its principles works to protect against the disease. For example, the Bible condemns sex outside marriage, demands fidelity within marriage, and says that Christians should marry only those who similarly apply Bible principles. (1 Corinthians 7:39; Hebrews 13:4) It also prohibits all forms of substance abuse and the intake of blood, which defile the body.—Acts 15:20; 2 Corinthians 7:1.

It is wise to educate yourself about the risks and dangers that might be involved in contact with HIV-positive persons. Learning about AIDS equips people to safeguard themselves against it.

The AIDS Action League says: “AIDS in most cases is preventable. Until a cure is found education is the best and for now the only [community] defense against AIDS.” (Italics ours.) It is good for parents to talk frankly with each other and with their children about AIDS.

What Are the Treatment Options?

Disease symptoms do not usually appear until six to ten years after a person is infected with HIV. During those years, a battle rages within the body. Individual viruses multiply and kill immune system cells. Immune system cells fight back. Eventually, as billions of new viruses are produced each day, the immune system is overwhelmed.

Various drugs have been developed to try to help the immune system, drugs with complex names identified by letters—AZT, DDI, and DDC. Though some believed that these drugs promised dramatic benefits and even a potential cure, such hopes were quickly dashed. They not only lose their effectiveness with time but also cause dangerous side effects in some people—depletion of blood cells, blood clotting disorders, and nerve damage to the hands and feet.

Now a new class of drugs has arrived: protease inhibitors. Doctors prescribe these in three-drug combinations with other antiviral medicines. Tests have shown that while this triple therapy does not kill the virus, it stops, or nearly stops, its multiplication in the body.

Triple therapy has brought dramatic improvement in the health of those who are sick. However, experts believe that the medication works best when given early to people infected with HIV, before symptoms display themselves. When that is done, it may be possible to prevent, perhaps indefinitely, the infection from developing into full-blown AIDS. Since the treatment is new, it remains to be seen how long the therapy will suppress the infection.

Triple therapy is expensive. The average cost of three antiviral drugs plus lab testing is $12,000 a year. Apart from the financial burden, a patient on triple therapy has to make many trips to the refrigerator, where the drugs must be kept. Typically, a person takes some pills twice a day and others three times a day. Some should be taken when the stomach is empty, others when the stomach is full. Therapy becomes far more complicated when additional medications must be taken to combat the many other infections to which the AIDS patient is susceptible.

A major concern to doctors is what might happen if a person discontinues triple therapy. Virus multiplication would resume unabated, and those viruses that have survived the treatment may be resistant to the drugs that the person had previously been taking to fight them. Drug-resistant strains of HIV would be more difficult to treat. Moreover, these superviruses could be passed on to other people.

Are Vaccines the Answer?

Some AIDS researchers believe that the key to halting the worldwide AIDS epidemic is a safe, effective vaccine. Successful vaccines against yellow fever, measles, mumps, and rubella are made from weakened viruses. Normally, when a weakened version of a virus is introduced into the body, the immune system not only reacts to destroy it but also constructs defenses that will successfully defeat any invasion by the real virus.

Two recent experiments with monkeys have suggested that the problem with HIV is that even the weakened virus can turn lethal. In other words, the vaccine might cause the disease it is designed to protect against.

The quest for a vaccine has been disappointing and frustrating. HIV has remained unscathed by dozens of experimental concoctions that would surely have slain lesser viruses. What is more, HIV mutates, making it an elusive target. (Presently there are at least ten families of HIV throughout the world.) Adding to the problem, the virus directly attacks the very immune system cells that a vaccine is supposed to rally in defense.

Economics also play a role in research. There exists a “low level of commitment from private industry,” stated the Washington-based International AIDS Vaccine Initiative. This was blamed on fears that a vaccine would not bring in profits, since most of it would be marketed in less-developed countries.

Despite the difficulties, researchers continue to investigate several approaches in the quest for a successful vaccine. At present, however, it seems unlikely that a vaccine will be produced soon. When a promising vaccine does emerge from the laboratory, then follows the laborious, expensive, and potentially risky task of testing it on humans.

[Box on page 5]

Who Are Being Infected With HIV?

Worldwide, about 16,000 people become infected each day. It is said that more than 90 percent live in developing countries. About 1 in 10 is a child under 15 years of age. The rest are adults of whom over 40 percent are women and over half are between the ages of 15 and 24.—World Health Organization and the Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS.

[Box on page 7]

How Can You Tell Who Is Infected?

You cannot tell whether a person is infected just by looking at him or her. Though symptomless carriers of HIV may appear to be healthy, they can pass the virus on to others. Can you take a person’s word for it that he is not infected? Not necessarily. Many of those who are infected with HIV are not aware of it themselves. Those who do know may keep it a secret, or they may lie. A survey in the United States revealed that 4 out of 10 HIV-infected people failed to inform their sex partners of their condition.

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The Relationship Between HIV and AIDS

HIV stands for “human immunodeficiency virus,” the virus that slowly destroys parts of the body’s disease-fighting immune system. AIDS stands for “acquired immunodeficiency syndrome.” It is the final, life-threatening stage of HIV infection. The name describes how HIV has severely damaged the immune system, making the patient prey to infections that the immune system would otherwise combat.

[Credit Line]

CDC, Atlanta, Ga.

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HIV testing before considering marriage is a wise choice

Aids—What Hope for the Future?

APART from the lack of drugs to cure or prevent HIV infection, other factors work against suppressing the disease. One of these is that many people, not willing to change their life-style, are willing to risk infection. In the United States, for example, the infection rate has remained steady, despite a drop in the number of people who have developed full-blown AIDS. The reason suggested by the Associated Press is that “many people are not heeding warnings about prevention.”

In the world’s developing nations, reportedly home to about 93 percent of those infected with HIV, there are additional problems in confronting the disease. Many of these countries are too poor to provide even basic health-care services. Even if the new drugs were available in those lands—and for the most part they are not—the price of a year of treatment would cost more than many people earn in a lifetime!

Yet, let us assume that a new, inexpensive drug were developed that would actually cure the disease. Would such a drug reach all those who need it? Probably not. Each year, according to the United Nations Children’s Fund, about four million children die from five diseases that can be prevented by inexpensive, existing vaccines.

What about infected people living in countries where they cannot obtain drugs for treatment? Ruth Mota, of International Health Programs in Santa Cruz, California, has helped organize HIV prevention and care programs in dozens of developing countries. She says: “From my experience, a positive attitude is just as important as access to medication. I know people who have lived with HIV for 10 to 15 years and who have never taken a medication. Medications are beneficial, but healing is much broader than putting chemicals in your body. It involves attitude, social support, spirituality, and nutrition.”

There Will Be a Solution

Is there any reason to believe that AIDS will one day be vanquished? Yes, there is. The best hope is contained in the words of what many call the Lord’s Prayer or the Our Father (Paternoster). In that prayer, recorded in the Bible book of Matthew, we implore that God’s will be done on earth as it is in heaven. (Matthew 6:9, 10) It is not God’s will for humans to be forever plagued with illness. God will answer that prayer. In doing so, he will bring an end not only to AIDS but to all other diseases that plague humankind. Then, “no resident will say: ‘I am sick.’”—Isaiah 33:24.

Meanwhile, the best strategy is prevention. For many diseases, there are two options: You can either prevent them or perhaps cure them. With HIV, there is no such choice. It can be prevented, but at present it cannot be cured. Why take risks that endanger your life? Prevention is certainly better than no cure.

[Blurb on page 9]

“Healing is much broader than putting chemicals in your body. It involves attitude, social support, spirituality, and nutrition.”—Ruth Mota

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“The Congregation Was Wonderful”

The apostle Paul urged fellow Christians: “Let us work what is good toward all, but especially toward those related to us in the faith.” (Galatians 6:10) The mother of Karen, mentioned in the first article, relates how the local congregation of Jehovah’s Witnesses reacted when they learned that Karen and Bill were ill with HIV. She says: “The congregation was wonderful. When Bill came down with pneumonia, Karen was ill herself and was struggling to care for him and the children. The brothers cleaned their house, repaired their car, and washed their laundry. They helped them care for legal affairs and move to another home. They bought and cooked food for them. There was a genuine outpouring of emotional, spiritual, and material support.”

[Picture on page 8]

Marital fidelity may prevent HIV infection

Bridges—How Would We Manage Without Them?

“Praise the bridge that carried you over.”—George Colman, 19th-century English playwright.

WHEN was the last time you crossed a bridge? Did you even notice it? Millions of people cross bridges every day. We just take them for granted. We walk, ride, or drive over them or under them, perhaps without giving a thought to it. But what if they were not there?

For thousands of years, man and beast have been able to cross otherwise impassable gaps, whether a river, a chasm, or a ravine, thanks to all kinds of bridges. It is hard to imagine some cities without their bridges—Cairo, London, Moscow, New York, Sydney, and many others. Yes, bridges have an ancient past.

Bridges of the Past

Over 2,500 years ago, Queen Nitocris of Babylon built a bridge across the Euphrates River. Why? The Greek historian Herodotus answers: “[Babylon] was divided by the river into two distinct portions. Under the former kings, if a man wanted to pass from one of these divisions to the other, he had to cross in a boat; which must, it seems to me, have been very troublesome.” Using timber, baked brick, and stone blocks for building materials and iron and lead for mortar, Nitocris erected a bridge over one of the most famous rivers of ancient times.

Sometimes bridges have affected the course of history. When King Darius the Great of Persia set out on his military campaign against the Scythians, he wanted to take the fastest overland route possible from Asia to Europe. That meant leading his army of 600,000 men across the Bosporus Strait. It was dangerous to cross the strait by boat because of heavy fog and treacherous currents, so Darius lashed boats together until he had made a floating pontoon bridge 3,000 feet [900 m] long. Today, you don’t have to go to as much trouble as Darius did to cross the strait. You can make the trip in less than two minutes by automobile if you use the Bosporus bridges at Istanbul, Turkey.

If you are a Bible student, you may be able to think of an occasion when the lack of a bridge affected the course of history. Recall what happened when King Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon laid siege to the island city of Tyre. For 13 years he tried to conquer the city, but he was unable to do so, partly because there was no bridge between the island and the mainland. (Ezekiel 29:17-20) The island city was not to be conquered for another three hundred years, when Alexander the Great built a causeway from the mainland to the island.

By the first century, ‘all roads led to Rome,’ but the Romans needed bridges as well as roads to bind the empire together. Using stones weighing as much as eight tons each, Roman engineers built arched bridges that were so skillfully designed that some of them are still standing after more than two thousand years. Their aqueducts and viaducts were also bridges.

In the Middle Ages, bridges sometimes served as fortresses. In 944 C.E., the Saxons built a timber bridge across the Thames River in London to ward off an attack by the Danes. Almost three hundred years later, this timber bridge was replaced by Old London Bridge, celebrated in history and in rhyme.

By the time Queen Elizabeth I took the throne of England, Old London Bridge was no longer just a stone fortress. Buildings had been erected right on the bridge. There were shops on the main floor. And the upper floors? They served as living quarters for wealthy merchants and even for members of the royal court. London Bridge had become a center of London’s social life. The rents that were collected for the shops and residences helped pay for the maintenance of the bridge, and, yes, London Bridge was a toll bridge!

While Europeans were busy building bridges out of timber and stone, the Incas of South America were making them out of rope. One famous example is the bridge of San Luis Rey, which spanned the Apurímac River in Peru. The Incas took the fibers of a plant and twisted them together to make cables as thick as a man’s body. They laid the cables across stone pillars and then stretched them across the river. After securing the cables at both ends, they suspended a platform of wooden planks to make a roadway. Maintenance crews renewed the cables every two years. This bridge was so well constructed and maintained that it lasted for five hundred years!

Bridges and Our Changing Needs

Bridges must be able to resist earthquakes, strong winds, and temperature changes. As we have seen, until quite recently engineers used timber, brick, or stone in bridge construction. When the automobile came into use at the end of the 19th century, existing bridges needed to be improved and enlarged to accommodate heavier traffic.

The invention of the steam locomotive also gave impetus to bridge building and design. The most convenient rail routes often stretched across a wide channel or a deep chasm. Could a bridge be built to span the gap and support the weight as more and more freight cars were added? Cast iron bridges filled the need for a time. One of the most famous bridges of the early 19th century is the suspension bridge over the Menai Strait in North Wales, designed by the Scottish engineer Thomas Telford and completed in 1826. It spans 579 feet [176 m] and is still in use! But cast iron tended to be brittle, and bridge failures were common. Finally, in the late 1800’s, steel began to be manufactured. This material had properties that were suitable for use in building longer, safer bridges.

Types of Bridge Structures

There are seven main bridge designs. (See the box above.) Here, we will briefly discuss two of them.

Cantilever bridges have two massive towers, on opposite sides of the river. Beams are anchored to each tower, much as a diving board is fastened to the edge of a swimming pool. To complete the bridge, the beams are then joined in the middle by a rigid span.

Where there is a raging river or where the riverbed is extremely soft, cantilever construction is often preferred because it does not require that piers be sunk in the middle of the riverbed. Because of their rigidity, cantilever bridges are ideal for carrying such heavy traffic as railroad trains.

Perhaps you have seen an acrobat in a circus walk across a tightrope. Did you realize that he is actually walking across a bridge—a suspension bridge? Some suspension bridges in use today are not much more complicated than a tightrope. They may consist of a cable anchored at both ends with a basket hung on it. The passenger sits in the basket and propels himself at a slight downward angle until he reaches the other side. People around the world use simple rope bridges all the time.

Of course, you would hardly think of driving an automobile across a bridge made of rope. After iron-link chains and steel-wire cables were invented, it became possible to build suspension bridges that could support heavy loads. Modern suspension bridges may have a main span that extends 4,000 feet [1,200 m] or more. A suspension bridge usually consists of two piers made of steel, each supporting a tower. Steel cables, made up of thousands of wires, are secured to the towers and to the roadway below. The cables are the main supports of the weight of the traffic and the roadway. When properly constructed, a suspension bridge is one of the safest bridges in the world.

In the past, you may have taken bridges for granted. However, the next time you walk across a familiar bridge, ask yourself: ‘What do I know about this bridge? When was it built?’ Look at it closely. Is it a cantilever, suspension, or other type of bridge? Why was this particular design chosen?

Then, as you cross, look down and ask yourself, ‘How would I manage without it?’

[Box/Picture on page 12]

BRIDGE DESIGNS

1. GIRDER BRIDGES are often used on highways. The girders rest on piers or abutments. These bridges can span up to 1,000 feet [300 meters].

2. TRUSS BRIDGES are supported by trusses shaped like triangles. These bridges, often used for railways, are built to span canyons, rivers, and other obstacles.

3. In ARCH BRIDGES each span forms an arch. This is one of the oldest types of bridge. The Romans built this kind of arch in their aqueducts and viaducts and used a keystone to lock the arch. Many are still standing today.

4. CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES resemble suspension bridges except that the cables are connected directly to the towers.

5. MOVABLE BRIDGES can be raised or swung around to allow ships to go through. London’s Tower Bridge is a good example.

6. CANTILEVER BRIDGES are explained in the main text.

7. SUSPENSION BRIDGES are explained in the main text.—World Book Encyclopedia, 1994.

[Chart on page 13]

SOME FAMOUS BRIDGES

SUSPENSION

Storebaelt Denmark 5,320 ft [1,624 m]

Brooklyn U.S.A. 1,595 ft [486 m]

Golden Gate U.S.A. 4,200 ft [1,280 m]

Jiangyin Yangtze China 4,544 ft [1,385 m]

CANTILEVER

Forth (two spans) Scotland 1,710 ft [521 m] each

Quebec Canada 1,800 ft [549 m]

Mississippi River U.S.A. 1,575 ft [480 m]

STEEL ARCH

Sydney Harbour Australia 1,650 ft [500 m]

Birchenough Zimbabwe 1,080 ft [329 m]

CABLE-STAYED

Pont de Normandie France 2,808 ft [856 m]

Skarnsundet Norway 1,739 ft [530 m]

[Picture on page 10]

Modern girder bridge above ancient arch bridge in Almería, Spain

[Picture on page 13]

Brooklyn Bridge, New York, U.S.A. (suspension)

[Picture on page 13]

Tower Bridge, London, England (movable)

[Picture on page 13]

Sydney Harbour Bridge, Australia (arch)

[Picture on page 13]

Seto Ohashi, Japan (cable-stayed)

A Bridge Named After Vasco da Gama

BY AWAKE! CORRESPONDENT IN PORTUGAL

THE Portuguese newspapers were replete with the news—one of the longest bridges in Europe had just been inaugurated with a display of fireworks. March 29, 1998, marked the opening of the 10.7-mile-long [17.2 kilometer] Vasco da Gama Bridge. Named after the Portuguese navigator who opened the sea route from Western Europe to India in the 15th century, the new bridge opens new routes to the industrialized north of the country, to the white beaches of the south in Algarve, and to Spain.

The bridge, the fifth longest in the world, spans the Tagus River estuary from Portugal’s capital, Lisbon, to the town of Montijo, on the south bank. Its 2,710-foot- [826 meter] long suspended section permits the passage of large seagoing vessels 150 feet [45 m] below.

A Festive Beginning

The opening ceremony actually started as a massive party a week before the official inauguration. Yes, excitement was high on Sunday, March 22, as 15,000 people were invited to a traditional Portuguese meal of feijoada, or bean stew. Where would so many be fed? Naturally, on the new bridge! What a sight to see a table stretched out over three miles [5 km] of the bridge! The meal was a success, and the people were appreciative of the gesture.

A Growing Need

Why was such a bridge necessary? Since 1966, Lisbon had been using the 3,323-foot [1,013 m] 25th of April suspension bridge. The average daily traffic was about 130,000 vehicles. Can you imagine the congestion at rush hour and on weekends? It was not uncommon for commuters to spend one or two hours to make this crossing between Lisbon and the south of Portugal. Thus the need for an alternative. The six lanes of the new bridge, located about eight miles [13 km] farther up the river, have brought some relief. It is designed so that when traffic on it reaches 52,000 vehicles a day, an additional lane can be added in each direction. It is hoped that traffic will move along quickly with a speed limit of 62 miles per hour [100 kph].

Crossing the Bridge

Join us as we enter the bridge from the south, in Montijo. Leaving the land and marsh behind, we are now on the six-mile [10 km] Tagus River section. It is high tide, and we are totally surrounded by water. The antiskid pavement gives a secure feeling together with the 1,500 pillars supporting the bridge’s length.

We now arrive at the suspended section of the bridge. This span is supported by tension cables flaring out like triumphant sails from the top of two 500-foot- [150-m] high towers. The foundations of the support pylons are sunk to a depth of from 160 to 210 feet [50 to 65 m]. For further security, the bridge was built to withstand gusts of wind up to 140 miles per hour [220 kph] and seismic shocks four and a half times greater than the earthquake that destroyed much of Lisbon in 1755.

As we reach the end of the Vasco da Gama Bridge, the northeast edge of Lisbon greets us with palm trees. If we wish, we can now continue on to the superhighway that takes us to the north of the country. The new bridge makes it possible to travel on a fine highway system from the Algarve in the south to the province of Minho in the north, with no need to fight Lisbon’s chaotic traffic!

Security Measures

In the building of this bridge, special attention was given to safety measures. A simple car breakdown could cause a major traffic jam. However, with 87 video cameras strategically placed on the bridge and its accesses, all irregularities in traffic are transmitted to monitors located at the police station and traffic control center. If a vehicle stops, an alarm goes off in the control room.

Additionally, a total of 36 pairs of SOS telephones have been placed every 1,300 feet [400 m] on the ten-mile [17-km] length. How does the emergency system work? Special vehicles regularly travel the bridge to care for needs that might arise, including combating fires and towing.

What about drastic changes in weather? Two meteorologic stations measure the speed, intensity, and direction of the winds and monitor weather and road conditions, adjusting speed limits according to atmospheric conditions.

The beauty of the symmetrical lines is intensified by nighttime illumination, consisting of 1,200 highway lights.

Ecological Challenges

Deciding on the final location of the new bridge was no easy task. What factors were involved?

Ecologically the site presented a great challenge. This was because the bridge crosses a natural reserve for birds, located at one of the largest estuaries in Western Europe. Extensive studies had to be made for the protection of flora, fish, birds, archaeological findings, water and air quality, and hundreds of acres of salt pans. Why does the Tagus estuary attract wildlife? It is one of the most important humid zones of Portugal and Europe, making it an ideal breeding ground for internationally protected migrating birds, such as the black-winged stilt, the Kentish plover, and the little tern. During the autumn and winter periods, thousands of birds use this salt marsh as a high-tide refuge.

Long-standing fish nurseries had to be taken into account. This meant further care had to be exercised in order to disturb the fish as little as possible. Three thousand fish, basically sole and sea bass, were tagged so as to monitor the nurseries.

Suddenly, this quiet, natural habitat has been brought close to the city. To what point will the natural environment be affected? It is hoped that the measures taken to preserve the precious southern shore will protect the reserve’s natural resources as much as possible.

The Vasco da Gama Bridge is truly a great accomplishment in engineering progress, architectural beauty, and symmetry. Portugal can justly be proud of the bridge that bears Vasco da Gama’s name!

[Maps/Picture on page 15]

(For fully formatted text, see publication)

PORTUGAL

SPAIN

[Map]

PORTUGAL

Lisbon

Montijo

Vasco da Gama Bridge

[Credit Line]

Courtesy of Lusoponte/Sonomage

Gutenberg—How He Enriched the World!

BY AWAKE! CORRESPONDENT IN GERMANY

WHICH invention of the past thousand years has most influenced your life? Was it the telephone, the television, or the motorcar? Probably it was none of these. According to many experts, it was mechanized printing. The man who is given credit for the invention of the first practical method is Johannes Gensfleisch zur Laden, better known as Johannes Gutenberg. He came from an aristocratic background and therefore did not have to serve a regular apprenticeship.

Gutenberg’s brainchild has been described as “the great German contribution to civilization.” Each surviving copy of his printing masterpiece—the so-called 42-line Gutenberg Bible—is worth a fortune.

Golden Mainz

Gutenberg was born in Mainz, in or about the year 1397. Situated on the banks of the Rhine River, Mainz was then a town of some 6,000 residents. It was known as Golden Mainz, being the center of a powerful league of towns. The archbishops in Mainz were electors of the Holy Roman Empire. Mainz was famous for its goldsmiths. Young Johannes learned much about metalwork, including how to emboss letters in metal. Because of political squabbles, he went into exile for some years to Strasbourg, where he engaged in and taught gem cutting. But what occupied him most was his secret work on a new invention. Gutenberg tried to perfect the art of mechanized printing.

Gutenberg’s Genius and Fust’s Finances

Gutenberg returned to Mainz and continued his experiments. For finances, he turned to Johann Fust, who loaned him 1,600 guldens—a princely sum at a time when a skilled craftsman took home just 30 guldens a year. Fust was an astute businessman who saw a profit in the venture. What sort of venture did Gutenberg have in mind?

Gutenberg’s keen eye observed that certain items were being produced in large numbers, each identical to the other. Coins, for instance, were minted, and bullets were cast in metal. So why not print hundreds of identical pages of writing and then assemble the pages in numerical order into identical books? Which books? He thought of the Bible, a book so costly that only a privileged few had personal copies. Gutenberg aimed to produce large quantities of identical Bibles, making them much cheaper than handwritten copies without sacrificing any of their beauty. How was this to be done?

Most books were copied by hand, which required diligence and time. Printing had been tried with hand-carved wooden blocks, each containing a page of writing. A Chinese man named Pi Sheng had even made individual letters of pottery to be used in printing. In Korea, letters made of copper had been used at a state printing works. But printing with movable type—individually made letters that can be rearranged for each new page—demanded vast quantities of letters, and no one had developed a way of producing them. That was reserved for Gutenberg.

As an experienced metalworker, he grasped that printing could best be achieved with movable letters made of, not pottery or wood, but metal. They would be cast in a mold, not carved or baked in an oven. Gutenberg needed molds that could be used to cast all 26 letters of his alphabet—in lowercase and capital—plus double letters, punctuation marks, signs, and numbers. In all, he calculated that 290 different characters were needed, each with dozens of replicas.

Down to Work

Gutenberg chose as the style for his book the Gothic script in Latin, which was used by monks in copying the Bible. Using his experience in metalwork, he carved on a small steel block an embossed mirror image of each letter and symbol, that is, a relief image on the surface of the steel. (Picture 1) This steel stamp was then used to punch the image into a small piece of softer metal, either copper or brass. The result was a true image of the letter sunk into the softer metal, called a matrix.

The next stage involved a casting mold, which was the product of Gutenberg’s genius. The mold was the size of a man’s fist and was open at the top and the bottom. The matrix for a letter was fixed to the bottom of the mold, and molten alloy was poured in at the top. (Picture 2) The alloy—tin, lead, antimony, and bismuth—cooled and hardened quickly.

The alloy taken from the mold bore an embossed mirror image of the letter at one end and was called type. The process was repeated until the required number of pieces of that letter had been produced. Then the matrix was removed from the mold and replaced by the matrix of the next letter. Thus, any number of pieces of type for each letter and symbol could be produced within a short period of time. All the type was of uniform height, just as Gutenberg required.

Printing could now begin. Gutenberg chose a passage of the Bible he wished to copy. With setting stick in hand, he used type to spell words, and he formed words into lines of text. (Picture 3) Each line was justified, that is, made to be of uniform length. Using a galley, he composed lines into a column of text, two columns to a page. (Picture 4)

This page of text was locked into position on the flat bed of a press and was then moistened with black ink. (Picture 5) The press—similar to those used in wine making—transferred the ink from the type onto paper. The result was a printed page. More ink and paper were used and the process repeated until the required number of copies was printed. Since the type was movable, it could be reused to compose another page.

Printing Masterpiece

Gutenberg’s workshop, employing 15 to 20 people, completed the first printed Bible in 1455. About 180 copies were made. Each Bible had 1,282 pages, with 42 lines to a page, printed in two columns. The binding of the books—each Bible had two volumes—and the ornamental hand-painting of the headings and the first letter of each chapter were done later outside Gutenberg’s workshop.

Can we imagine how many pieces of type were needed to print the Bible? Each page contains about 2,600 characters. Assuming that Gutenberg had six typesetters, each of whom worked on three pages at once, they would have required some 46,000 pieces. We can readily understand that Gutenberg’s casting mold held the key to printing with movable letters.

People were astounded when they compared the Bibles: Each word was in the same position. That was impossible with handwritten documents. Günther S. Wegener writes that the 42-line Bible was of “such uniformity and symmetry, harmony and beauty, that printers throughout the ages have been struck with awe by this masterpiece.”

Financial Ruin

Fust, however, was less interested in making a masterpiece than in making money. The return on his investment was taking longer than expected. The partners became estranged, and in 1455—just as the Bibles were being completed—Fust foreclosed on the loans. Gutenberg was unable to repay the money and lost the ensuing court case. He was forced to surrender to Fust at least some of his printing equipment and the type for the Bibles. Fust opened his own printery together with Gutenberg’s skilled employee Peter Schöffer. Their business, Fust and Schöffer, reaped the good name that Gutenberg had earned and became the world’s first commercially successful printery.

Gutenberg tried to continue his work by setting up another printery. Some scholars attribute to him other printed material dating back to the 15th century. But nothing achieved the majesty and splendor of the 42-line Bible. In 1462 misfortune struck again. As a result of a power struggle within the Catholic hierarchy, Mainz was burned and looted. Gutenberg lost his workshop for a second time. He died six years later, in February 1468.

Gutenberg’s Heritage

Gutenberg’s invention spread rapidly. By the year 1500, there were printing presses in 60 German towns and 12 other European countries. “The development of printing amounted to a communications revolution,” states The New Encyclopædia Britannica. “Over the next 500 years a great many improvements were made in the mechanics of printing, but the fundamental process remained essentially the same.”

Printing transformed European life, since knowledge was no longer the preserve of the privileged. News and information began to reach the common man, who became more aware of things going on around him. Printing made it necessary to give each of the national languages a standard written form that everyone could understand. Hence, the English, French, and German languages were standardized and preserved. The demand for reading material increased astronomically. Prior to Gutenberg there were a few thousand manuscripts in Europe; 50 years after his death, there were millions of books.

The 16th-century Reformation would have been stillborn without mechanized printing. The Bible was translated into Czech, Dutch, English, French, German, Italian, Polish, and Slavonic, and the printing press made easy work of publishing tens of thousands of copies. Martin Luther made good use of the printing press in spreading his message. He succeeded in his endeavors where others, who lived before Gutenberg’s press, had failed. No wonder Luther described the printing press as God’s way “to spread the true religion throughout the world”!

Surviving Copies of the Gutenberg Bible

How many Gutenberg Bibles have survived? Until recently the number was believed to be 48—some of them incomplete—scattered around Europe and North America. One of the most elegant copies is a parchment Bible at the Library of Congress in Washington, D.C. Then, in 1996, a sensational discovery was made: A further section of the Gutenberg Bible was discovered in a church archive in Rendsburg, Germany.—See Awake! of January 22, 1998, page 29.

How grateful we can be that the Bible is now affordable to anyone! Of course, that does not mean that we can go out and buy a 42-line Gutenberg! How much is one worth? The Gutenberg Museum in Mainz obtained a copy in 1978 for 3.7 million deutsche marks (today about $2 million). This Bible is now worth several times that amount.

What makes the Gutenberg Bible unique? Professor Helmut Presser, former director of the Gutenberg Museum, suggests three reasons. First, Gutenberg’s Bible was the first book to be printed in the West with movable letters. Second, it was the first Bible ever printed. Third, it is breathtakingly beautiful. Professor Presser writes that in the Gutenberg Bible, we see “Gothic writing at its absolute zenith.”

People of all cultures are indebted to Gutenberg’s genius. He brought together casting mold, alloy, ink, and press. He mechanized printing and enriched the world.

[Pictures on page 16, 17]

1. A steel stamp was used to punch the image of the letter into the copper matrix

2. Molten alloy was poured into the casting mold. Once the alloy hardened, the extracted type bore a mirror image of the letter

3. Type was placed in a setting stick to spell words, forming a line of text

4. Lines were composed into columns in a galley

5. The page of text was placed on the flat bed of the press

6. A copperplate engraving of Gutenberg, dating back to 1584

7. Today, one copy of the Gutenberg Bible is worth millions of dollars

[Credit Line]

Pictures 1-4, 6, and 7: Gutenberg-Museum Mainz; picture 5: Courtesy American Bible Society

[Picture Credit Line on page 16]

Background: By Permission of the British Library/Gutenberg Bible

A Tactful Queen Who Defeated a Scheming Bishop

By Awake! correspondent in South Africa

IN THE company of her loyal ladies, Queen Catherine Parr of England feels secure. King Henry VIII’s illness, coupled with the intrigues of court life, is taking its toll on him. While the queen is conversing with a friend, one of her ladies rushes in, clutching a sheet of paper. Out of breath, she hands the sheet to Catherine. Disturbed by the lady-in-waiting’s anxious frown, the queen hesitantly accepts the paper. Apparently, it was accidentally dropped by an official outside the queen’s apartments.a

As she reads, Catherine turns pale. Her disbelief turns to horror. It is a list of heretical charges against her, signed by the king. She cries out and almost sinks to the ground, but friends support her. She tries to calm herself, to think clearly, but she is too disturbed. Mercifully, her ladies help her to bed.

She lies down, but she cannot rest. Fitfully, she reviews the events of her marriage to King Henry VIII. She was 31, twice married and widowed, and was considering marriage to the dashing Thomas Seymour. But the king had other plans. He proposed. How could she refuse? It was certainly an honor, but one fraught with problems. She became his sixth wife on July 12, 1543.

Henry was no longer the dashing, jousting, athletic figure of his youth. At the age of 52, he was greatly overweight, subject to sudden changes of mood, and plagued with ulcers in his legs to the extent that at times he could hardly walk and had to be conveyed in a chair.

Yet, Catherine had drawn on her considerable intelligence and talents to make the marriage work. She made herself a companion to his three children from previous marriages. She worked hard at being an entertaining wife. When his legs ached, she distracted him with lively discussion, often on religious matters. She brought the king a measure of tranquillity in his later years.

She now tries to review her life with the king. What had she done wrong? She reflects on a recent meeting with him. That evening some of his courtiers were present, and he seemed to be in a good mood. As was her custom, she raised a religious question they had discussed before. He was peevish and cut her short. She was surprised but dismissed it as moodiness on his part. Usually he enjoyed such discussions and did not object to her interest in religious matters.

She makes a mental note of who was present on that occasion. Her thoughts persistently return to one man—Stephen Gardiner, a known enemy.

A Scheming Bishop

Gardiner, bishop of Winchester and a royal councillor, is an influential man and an opposer of religious reform. He resents Catherine, both for her interest in religious change and for her influence with the king.

When Henry’s chief adviser, Thomas Cromwell, maneuvered Gardiner out of his position as principal secretary to the king, Gardiner sought an opportunity to retaliate. He was involved in the plot that caused Cromwell’s downfall and execution. Gardiner was also frustrated because Henry had overlooked him and appointed as Archbishop of Canterbury the comparatively obscure Thomas Cranmer, who had Protestant sympathies. Fortunately for Cranmer, Henry thwarted a plot hatched against him by Gardiner and others.

The danger to Catherine and her ladies at court is accentuated by another recent scheme of Bishop Gardiner. A young woman, Anne Askew, was an outspoken advocate of religious reform. She was in prison, awaiting execution for heresy. But Gardiner was interested in her for another reason. He wanted evidence that she had contact with influential ladies at court, which could also incriminate the queen. An associate of Gardiner, Thomas Wriothesley, one of the king’s leading councillors, went to question Anne Askew.

Tortured on the Rack

Wriothesley interrogated Anne for some time, but he did not get the incriminating evidence he needed. Finally, he ordered her to be strapped on the rack,b although it was illegal to use this instrument of torture on a woman. When this failed to make her talk, Wriothesley and another councillor turned the rack themselves and stretched her to the limit, but they still did not get the desired information.

The thought of Anne Askew’s suffering reduces Catherine to tears. She is aware that someone has entered the room. One of her ladies approaches and tells her that the king’s physician, Dr. Wendy, has been sent by the king to examine her. The kindly doctor asks how she is and conveys the king’s concern for her health.

The doctor explains how the king confided to him the plot against her and swore him to secrecy. Nevertheless, Dr. Wendy tells her the whole story—that after she left the king that night, he sarcastically commented that it was very comforting to him in his old age “to be taught by [his] wife.”

Gardiner saw his opportunity and seized it. He said that the queen harbored heretics and that her activities were treasonable, posing a threat to the king’s authority. He said that if allowed the time, he and others could put before the king evidence of this. The angry king agreed to sign a bill of articles against her.

After recounting these events, Dr. Wendy urges her to go to the king at the earliest opportunity and humbly ask his forgiveness. This is the only way to outwit her enemies, who will not rest until she is a prisoner in the Tower of London and until they have enough evidence to condemn her to death.

Catherine sees the wisdom of this advice, and late one night, upon hearing that the king is in his chambers, she dresses carefully and rehearses what she will say. Her sister and a friend, Lady Lane, accompany her.

A Wise, Prudent Queen

The king is sitting and joking with some of his gentlemen. With a smile he welcomes his wife. Then he changes the conversation to religious matters. He asks Catherine to resolve doubts he has on some points. Catherine sees the trap immediately. She tries her best to respond with sincerity and honesty.

She says that God created woman after the man—inferior to him. She continues: ‘Since then God has appointed such a natural difference between man and woman, and your majesty being so excellent in wisdom and I so much inferior in all respects to you, how then does your majesty, in such complex religious matters, seem to require my judgment?’ She then acknowledges that he is head over her in all things, second only to God.

‘Not so,’ responds the king. ‘You have become a doctor to instruct us and not to be instructed or directed by us.’

She replies: ‘If your majesty take it so, then your majesty has very much mistaken me, who have ever thought it very unseemly, and preposterous, for the woman to take upon her the office of an instructor or teacher to her lord and husband; but rather to learn from her husband and to be taught by him.’ She further explains that when she spoke with him on religious matters and at times expressed an opinion, it was not to promote her ideas. Rather, by engaging in conversation, she hoped to distract him from the pain he felt because of his infirmity.

‘And is it even so, Sweetheart?’ says the king. ‘And tended your arguments to no worse end? Then perfect friends we are now again, as ever at any time before.’ Still seated, he summons her to him, embraces her warmly, and kisses her. He says that hearing this news is better than receiving a sudden gift of a hundred thousand pounds. They continue in pleasant conversation until he gives her permission to leave about midnight.

The next day the king takes his customary walk in the royal garden, accompanied by two gentlemen of his bedchamber. He has summoned the queen to join him, and she duly appears with three of her ladies. Henry has neglected to tell Catherine that this was the time formerly agreed upon for her arrest. He has also failed to inform Wriothesley, who was to carry out the arrest, of his reconciliation with the queen. While they are enjoying themselves, Wriothesley appears with 40 of the king’s guards to arrest the queen along with her ladies.

Henry separates from the party and summons Wriothesley, who drops to his knees. The rest of the party cannot hear what the king says, but they do hear him utter in rage the words, ‘Knave! Beast! Fool!’ He orders Wriothesley to get out of his sight.

When the king returns to her, Catherine tries to pacify him with mild words. She even speaks in Wriothesley’s behalf, saying that whatever he has done may have been done in error.

To this the king responds: ‘On my word, Sweetheart, he has been toward you an arrant knave, and so let him go.’

Thus Catherine was saved from her enemies, and Bishop Gardiner lost the king’s favor. The queen had defeated the scheming bishop. The game was over.c

[Footnotes]

This fictional account is based on various sources, including Foxe’s Book of Martyrs.

“An instrument of torture consisting of a frame with rollers to which a person’s wrists and ankles were tied so that his joints were stretched when the rollers were turned.”—Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary.

Catherine Parr outlived Henry and finally married Thomas Seymour. She died in 1548, at the age of 36, shortly after giving birth. Gardiner, after serving time in prison and in the Tower of London, was deprived of his bishopric in 1550. He regained favor under Catholic Mary I (1553) and died in 1555.

[Pictures on page 21]

Queen Catherine Parr

Bishop Stephen Gardiner

[Credit Line]

Detail of Catherine Parr: By courtesy of the National Portrait Gallery, London; Stephen Gardiner: National Trust Photographic Library/J. Whitaker

[Picture on page 22]

Henry VIII denounced Thoman Wriothesley before the queen

[Credit Line]

Portrait by Holbein, from the book The History of Protestantism (Vol. III)

[Picture Credit Line on page 20]

Background on pages 20-2: From the book The Library of Historic Characters and Famous Events, Vol. VII, 1895

Exploring the Age-Old Beauty of Wood

By “Awake!” correspondent in New Zealand

TIMBER, particularly that of the native variety, is rapidly becoming a scarcity. Forests are being depleted at an alarming rate in many places in the world. Shortages of lumber supplies result in exorbitant prices for wood, one of the world’s basic and formerly plentiful commodities.

It is ironic that here in New Zealand, there are thriving plantations of radiata pine, introduced in the 1930’s, yet stands of indigenous trees, such as rimu, kauri, beech, and kahikatea, are dwindling.

Ageless Appeal of Solid Wood

For thousands of years, man has enjoyed shaping wood into all manner of useful items. The color, distinctive grain, and even odor given off by most types of wood have often delighted people. Items of varied usefulness have brought satisfaction year after year and, in some cases, century after century.

From earliest times, solid wood furniture has been used in homes. Using primitive tools, men and women have demonstrated flair and skill in constructing such basic things as tables, bowls, stools, barrels, chests, and chairs.

Modern technology has accelerated the speed with which such items are constructed today. Power tools, such as saws, drills, planes, and sanders, can efficiently, if somewhat noisily, craft raw timber into solid wood furniture. Most countries can boast of woodworking factories that churn out mass-produced furniture at reasonable costs.

But such furniture is often lacking in durability because either (1) substitutes (wood veneer, chipboard) replace solid wood or (2) techniques in the joinery rely on speedy construction, using staple machines or tacks or nails.

Returning to the Adz

In an attempt to overcome seeming inadequacies of modern technology, some are seeking the services of an ancient woodworking tool—the adz. It is defined as “a cutting tool that has a thin arched blade set at right angles to the handle and is used chiefly for shaping wood.” In New Zealand, the Maori people used greenstone (jade) adzes to hew canoes and shape poles for carving. Most adzes today, however, are metal.

In past centuries, carpenters used the adz for trueing and leveling framework in house and ship construction. They dressed planks held between their feet, using the curved blade of the adz to slice scallops or dented hollows into the surface of the timber.

Its Companion—The Drawknife

Enhancing the rustic charm of the item under construction and acting as companion to the adz is another indispensable tool, the drawknife. This is used to fashion the edges or faces of timber. Both the adz and the drawknife must be kept razor sharp.

Once you have obtained these tools, the next steps are to search out suitable raw material and, then, to transform it into whatever item of furniture you desire to make. This is where, in the eyes of carpenters, an old-fashioned, rustic style of furniture making has considerable advantages over the more conventional manufacturing techniques.

Rough-sawn timber planks, provided they are dry and not warped or bowed, can be fashioned into furniture that is both sturdy and beautiful. Such planking may be obtained from a variety of sources: discarded furniture (wardrobes, headboards, tabletops), old packing cases, beams from demolished buildings, and old fence posts.

Recycled Timber—Given a New Lease on Life

Aged timber that has not been affected by woodworm or rot can come alive with warmth and beauty in the hands of an expert.

Blemishes, nail holes, and dents can create unusual features in the recycled wood used for furniture. Left in its natural form or stained and polished, your handcrafted item will bring contentment and pleasure as something well made and long lasting.

As with the gardener who tills the soil, the potter who kneads the clay, and the spinner who spins the natural fiber, the carpenter who shapes and fashions a piece of timber using an adz or a drawknife finds it to be most rewarding. Yes, it is hard work. Yes, it is going to take far longer than modern methods. However, the realization that your labors will be a source of satisfaction to you and that your crafted furniture will bring years of usefulness to its recipient contributes to the age-old joy bound up in working with wood.

Hints as to Technique

An adz is not ideal for use on all timber. The fibers found in tropical hardwoods usually resist the stroke of the adz blade. Generally, a softer timber will respond better to the adz. Knots need not be a problem. Using a gouge (curved chisel), you can carve or hollow these out, thus creating a special feature in the surface you are preparing.

Some of the finest color is often found in planks sawed from the heart of a tree. Furniture made from these will rarely need staining. If, however, you wish to give depth and character to a plain wood, there are a wide range of stains to suit your individual preference.

…

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Awake!, November 8, 1998