Awake!, July 22, 1998

Awake! — July 22, 1998

Source: jw.org

Contents

Page Two

Tormented by Phobias

When All Eyes Seem to Be Upon You

Controlling Social Phobia

Kenya’s Rhino Orphans

Have Scientists Really Found Black Holes?

Why Can’t I Concentrate?

Dengue—A Fever From a Bite

From Milk to Feta

Watching the World

From Our Readers

Be Selective in Choosing Entertainment

‘They Broaden Our Outlook’

Page Two

Bringing Phobias Under Control 3-11

Millions of people are tormented by phobias—intense, unrealistic fears of objects, events, or feelings. Yet, such people can learn to control their fears.

Have Scientists Really Found Black Holes? 14

Once-bright stars that have disappeared, crushed into nothingness by their own gravitational force. Do they exist?

Why Can’t I Concentrate? 18

Do you have a problem keeping your mind on things? If so, what can you do about it?

Tormented by Phobias

“Phobias have often been a subject of ridicule. But ‘funny’ is one thing they are not.”—Jerilyn Ross, director of a treatment center for anxiety disorders

THE word “phobia” refers to an intense, unrealistic fear of an object, an event, or a feeling. But a definition alone cannot convey the terror and loneliness that mark this condition. Raeann Dumont, who has treated phobias for more than two decades, notes: “Phobic people may avoid so many situations that they become housebound, or they may live with constant, unrelenting anxiety, or they may relieve their anxiety with alcohol, which may cause additional problems.”

Phobias are classified among a group of ailments called anxiety disorders.a It is estimated that 12 percent of the adult population in the United States will deal with a phobia at some point in their life. Many of these will suffer in silence for years. “Unfortunately,” reports the Anxiety Disorders Association of America, “about three-quarters of individuals with phobias never get help. Many people with phobias are reluctant to seek assistance because of embarrassment. Others don’t understand what they have or where to find help, and some fear the treatment itself.”

There are hundreds of known phobias, but experts usually arrange them in three categories. Simple phobias focus on an object or a situation, such as insects, animals, flying, and being in closed spaces. Agoraphobia usually occurs in conjunction with panic attacks. The sufferer fears having a panic attack to the extent that he or she avoids all places and situations where previous attacks occurred. Social phobias are characterized by a fear of being embarrassed in public settings, such as speaking before an audience.

Consider just one of these three—social phobias. The Washingtonian states: “Lump together all the simple phobias, such as fear of snakes or flying, and they don’t even touch social phobia as a cause of misery.” Is this really true? If so, why? Let us see.

[Footnote]

Other anxiety disorders include panic disorder, obsessive-compulsive disorder, posttraumatic stress disorder, and generalized anxiety disorder. For more information, see Awake! of February 8, 1996, “Compulsive Behavior—Does It Control Your Life?” and June 8, 1996, “Coping With Panic Attacks.”

When All Eyes Seem to Be Upon You

“Torture” is the word Jerry uses to describe it. “Every time I walked into a classroom,” he says, “I would start sweating profusely, my mouth felt like it was full of cotton, and I didn’t think I would be able to talk—even if my life depended on it. Then I would start to feel this intense heat rise up through my arms and legs and face and I would turn bright red—as if my entire body was blushing.”

JERRY suffers from social phobia, a condition characterized by an intense fear of being scrutinized by others and of being publicly humiliated. “The person with social phobia believes that all eyes are on him,” says a booklet published by the Anxiety Disorders Association of America. “The anxiety can lead to panic-like attacks including such symptoms as heart palpitations, faintness, shortness of breath, and profuse sweating.”

Some might tend to dismiss the fears of social phobics, saying that they should just force themselves to ignore their shyness and “get out there and meet people.” Granted, part of combating social phobia involves confronting your fears. However, there is a vast difference between shyness and social phobia. “Unlike ordinary shyness,” says Jerilyn Ross, “social phobia is so severe that it interferes with daily functioning, at work, at school, and in almost all interpersonal relationships.”

Studies suggest that the lives of millions of people are impaired by social phobia.a Consider some fears that are associated with this debilitating condition.

The Fears of Social Phobia

Public speaking. Doug recalls being seized by panic while giving a brief speech to a local citizens’ group. “All of a sudden I broke out in a cold sweat,” he says. “My heart was pounding. I was trembling, shaking. My throat felt like it was closing up, making it difficult for me to get the words out.” Granted, almost everyone gets jittery when standing before an audience. But the social phobic experiences a wave of terror that is intense and unremitting, and it does not diminish with practice. Indeed, Doug came to view even the most trivial speaking opportunity as if it were a threat to his life.

Eating in the presence of others. Since social phobics believe that they are being scrutinized, even a simple meal can become a nightmarish ordeal. They worry that their hands will shake, that they will spill their food or miss their mouths, or even that they will get sick. These fears can become self-fulfilling prophecies. The book Dying of Embarrassment notes: “The more you worry about the possibility of doing something embarrassing, the more anxious you become. The more anxious you become, the more likely you are to actually begin trembling or make abrupt, clumsy movements. This problem can build to the point where it becomes difficult to get food or a beverage to your mouth without dropping or spilling it.”

Writing in the presence of others. Fearing that their hand will shake or that they will be observed scribbling illegibly, many social phobics panic when they have to sign a check or perform any other writing task while being watched. Sam, for example, was mortified when his employer required that he sign a log book in front of a security guard at the beginning of each workday. “I couldn’t do it,” Sam says. “My hand would shake so badly that I had to control it with the other hand in order to hit the line and then you couldn’t read what I had written.”

Using the telephone. Dr. John R. Marshall says that many of his patients confessed that they avoided using the phone whenever possible. “They worried that they would fail to make the appropriate response,” he says. “Others feared that, because they would not know what to say, embarrassing silences would ensue and at the point when the conversation falters, anxiety would cause their voices to change, quiver, or squeak. They were terrified that they might stammer, stutter, or in other embarrassing ways give evidence of their disturbed state.”

Interacting with people. Some social phobics fear virtually any situation that involves mingling with others. Often, they are particularly terrified of making eye contact. “People with severe social phobias often feel anxious uncertainty about where to direct their eyes and how to respond when others look at them,” says The Harvard Mental Health Letter. “They avoid eye contact because they feel as though they do not know when to look and when to look away. They imagine that others will misinterpret their gaze.”

There are other fears associated with social phobia. Many, for example, are terrified of using public rest rooms. Others dread shopping under the gaze of a salesperson. “I’m so self-conscious I often don’t even see what I’m looking at,” says one woman. “I’m always expecting or imagining the person behind the counter to demand that I just figure out what I want and stop wasting their time.”

How Do They Attempt to Cope?

Those who do not have the disorder find the pain of social phobia difficult to comprehend. One sufferer describes his experience as “the most awful kind of embarrassment anyone could ever imagine!” Another admits: “I think about suicide all the time.”

Sadly, many social phobics turn to alcohol in an effort to alleviate their anxiety.b While it may bring temporary relief, in the long run, abuse of alcohol only adds to the sufferer’s problems. Dr. John R. Marshall notes: “More than one of my patients with little experience in social drinking have drunk themselves into a stupor—in the effort to calm themselves before or during a social situation, only to add to the very humiliation in the eyes of others that they feared so intensely.”

Perhaps the most common coping strategy among social phobics is avoidance. Yes, many simply stay away from the situations that they dread. “I avoided as many situations as possible, even talking on the telephone,” says a social phobic named Lorraine. In time, however, many sufferers find that avoidance imprisons them rather than protects them. “After a while,” says Lorraine, “the loneliness and boredom would overwhelm me.”

Avoidance can become “a self-reinforcing trap,” warns Jerilyn Ross. “And every act of avoidance,” she adds, “makes that trap easier to fall into the next time—until avoidance becomes an almost automatic response.” Some sufferers routinely decline dinner invitations or turn down job opportunities that involve interacting with people. As a result, they never learn to confront their fears and conquer them. As Dr. Richard Heimberg puts it, “their lives are filled with imagined rejections that never came about and imagined failures at jobs they never tried because they avoided them.”

There is, however, good news about social phobia: It is treatable. Of course, it is impossible—even undesirable—to eliminate every form of anxiety altogether. Yet, those who suffer from social phobia can learn to control their fears, and the Bible contains practical counsel that can help.

[Footnotes]

It should be noted that nearly everyone has some social fears. For example, many people become anxious at the prospect of speaking before an audience. The diagnosis of social phobia, however, is usually applied only to those whose fears are so extreme that they significantly disrupt normal functioning.

Studies show that there is a high rate of alcoholism among social phobics and that there is a high rate of social phobia among alcoholics. Which comes first? It is claimed that a third of alcoholics had a history of panic disorder or some form of social phobia before they started drinking.

[Pictures on page 5]

For the social phobic, normal interactions become a nightmarish ordeal

Controlling Social Phobia

“The most important thing for people with phobias to remember is that phobic disorders do respond well to treatment. It’s not something they have to continue to suffer with.”—Dr. Chris Sletten.

HAPPILY, many social phobics have been helped to reduce their anxiety and even to face the social settings that they feared for many years. If you suffer from social phobia, be assured that you too can learn constructive ways to deal with this disorder. To do so, you will need to address (1) your physical symptoms, (2) the beliefs you hold about the situations you fear, and (3) the behavior that your fears elicit.

Bible principles can help. True, God’s Word is not a medical textbook, nor does it mention the term “social phobia.” Yet, the Bible can help you to “safeguard practical wisdom and thinking ability” when dealing with your fears.—Proverbs 3:21; Isaiah 48:17.

Managing Your Symptoms

The physical symptoms of social phobia vary from one person to the next. How does your body respond as you approach a feared situation? Do your hands shake? Does your heart beat rapidly? Do you experience abdominal distress? Do you perspire or blush, or does your mouth become dry?

Granted, it is unpleasant to contemplate sweating, stammering, or trembling in front of others. But anxiety over what might happen will not help. Jesus aptly asked: “Who of you by being anxious can add one cubit to his life span?” (Matthew 6:27; compare Proverbs 12:25.) Indeed, dwelling on your symptoms and on what others might think of them will only make matters worse. “Imagining that others notice their nervousness makes people with social phobias still more anxious,” observes The Harvard Mental Health Letter. “They come to anticipate the resulting awkwardness and poor performance—an expectation that sets off further alarms when they approach feared situations.”

You may be able to reduce the intensity of your symptoms by practicing slow breathing from the diaphragm. (See the box “Watch Your Breathing!”) Also helpful is regular physical exercise and muscle relaxation. (1 Timothy 4:8) You may also need to make some life-style changes. For example, the Bible counsels: “Better is a handful of rest than a double handful of hard work and striving after the wind.” (Ecclesiastes 4:6) So make sure that you are getting sufficient rest. In addition, watch your diet. Do not skip meals or eat at irregular times. It may be necessary to cut back on caffeine, which can be a prime offender in stirring anxiety.

Most of all, be patient. (Ecclesiastes 7:8) One team of doctors reports: “In time, you’ll notice that, while you’re still apt to feel some anxiety in certain social situations, the intensity of your bodily symptoms will decrease considerably. Most importantly, with practice, your self-confidence will increase, and you’ll be better prepared to enter the social situations you fear.”

Challenging Your Phobic Beliefs

It has been said that you cannot experience a feeling without first experiencing a thought. This seems to be true of social phobia. Hence, to reduce your physical symptoms, you may need to examine the “disquieting thoughts” that fuel them.—Psalm 94:19.

Some experts say that social phobia is, in essence, a fear of disapproval. For example, while at a social gathering, a social phobic might say to himself, ‘I look foolish. People must notice that I just don’t fit in. I’m sure everyone is making fun of me.’ A social phobic named Tracy had such feelings. In time, however, she questioned her beliefs. She came to realize that people had better things to do with their time than to analyze and judge her. “Even if I say something boring,” Tracy concluded, “is it valid for someone else to disapprove of me as a person because of this?”

Like Tracy, you may need to challenge distorted thinking as to the likelihood—and the severity—of others’ disapproval in social situations. Is there really valid reason to believe that people would become upset with you if your worst fears came true? Even if some did, is there cause to conclude that you would not survive the ordeal? Does the opinion of another person actually change your value as a person? The Bible wisely advises: “Do not give your heart to all the words that people may speak.”—Ecclesiastes 7:21.

One team of doctors writing on social phobia stated: “Problems arise when people attach too much meaning and importance to the inevitable rejections that life brings. Rejection can be very disappointing. It can really hurt. But it doesn’t have to devastate you. It’s really not a catastrophe unless you make it one.”

The Bible helps us to view ourselves realistically. It acknowledges: “We all stumble many times.” (James 3:2) Yes, no one is immune to imperfection and its sometimes embarrassing manifestations. Appreciating this helps us to make concessions for the weaknesses of others, and it encourages others to be just as understanding with ours. In any event, Christians know that the one whose approval really matters is Jehovah God—and he does not focus on our errors.—Psalm 103:13, 14; 130:3.

Facing Your Fears

To win your battle with social phobia, sooner or later you will need to confront your fears. At first, the very thought of this might seem daunting. Until now, perhaps you have avoided social settings that would incite your fears. Likely, however, this has only eroded your confidence and further entrenched your fears. With good reason, the Bible states: “One isolating himself will seek his own selfish longing; against all practical wisdom he will break forth.”—Proverbs 18:1.

In contrast, facing your fears may tend to reduce your anxiety.a Dr. John R. Marshall says: “We often encourage our socially phobic patients—particularly those whose fears are relatively circumscribed, such as public speaking—to force themselves to become active in settings and organizations that require social contact.”

Confronting the situations that you have feared will convince you (1) that embarrassing flaws will most often not result in the disapproval of others and (2) that even if they do result in some disapproval, this is not a catastrophe. Remember, though, to be patient with your progress. Recovery is not accomplished overnight, nor is it realistic to expect all signs of social phobia to disappear. According to Dr. Sally Winston, the goal of treatment is, not to get rid of the symptoms, but to make them not matter. If they don’t matter, she says, they go away or at least improve.

Christians have strong incentive to overcome social fears. Indeed, they are told to “consider one another to incite to love and fine works, not forsaking the gathering of ourselves together.” (Hebrews 10:24, 25) Since Christian activity often involves interacting with others, working hard to control your social fears can greatly aid your spiritual advancement. (Matthew 28:19, 20; Acts 2:42; 1 Thessalonians 5:14) Keep the matter before Jehovah God in prayer, for he can supply you with “power beyond what is normal.” (2 Corinthians 4:7; 1 John 5:14) Ask Jehovah to help you to acquire a balanced outlook on the approval of others and to cultivate the necessary skills to do what he requires.

Admittedly, each sufferer’s problems are unique, and each one will have different obstacles to face and different strengths to draw on. Some have made considerable improvement by using the suggestions that have been discussed. There are cases where additional help may be necessary. Some, for example, have been helped by medication.b Others have sought the help of a mental-health expert. Awake! does not recommend or endorse any particular kind of treatment. Whether a Christian pursues such treatment is a personal decision. He should be careful, however, that any treatment he receives does not conflict with Bible principles.

Men “With Feelings Like Ours”

The Bible can be of great encouragement, for it contains real-life examples of people who conquered personal obstacles in order to do what God required of them. Consider Elijah. As one of Israel’s foremost prophets, he displayed what may seem like superhuman courage. Yet, the Bible assures us that “Elijah was a man with feelings like ours.” (James 5:17) He was not immune to periods of intense fear and anxiety.—1 Kings 19:1-4.

The Christian apostle Paul went to Corinth “in weakness and in fear and with much trembling,” evidently having strong misgivings about his own abilities. And he did meet with a measure of disapproval. Indeed, some opposers said of Paul: “His presence in person is weak and his speech contemptible.” Yet, there is no indication that Paul allowed the twisted opinion of others to influence his view of himself or his abilities.—1 Corinthians 2:3-5; 2 Corinthians 10:10.

Moses lacked confidence in his ability to approach Pharaoh, claiming to be “slow of mouth and slow of tongue.” (Exodus 4:10) Even when Jehovah God promised to help him, Moses begged: “No, Lord, please send someone else.” (Exodus 4:13, Today’s English Version) Moses could not see his strengths, but Jehovah could see them. He viewed Moses as mentally and physically competent to fulfill the assignment. Still, Jehovah lovingly provided Moses with an assistant. He did not force Moses to face Pharaoh alone.—Exodus 4:14, 15.

Jeremiah too is an outstanding example in this regard. When he was commissioned as God’s prophet, this young man responded: “Alas, O Sovereign Lord Jehovah! Here I actually do not know how to speak, for I am but a boy.” The strength to carry out his assignment was not inherent in Jeremiah. Yet, Jehovah was with him. He helped Jeremiah to become “a fortified city and an iron pillar and copper walls against all the land.”—Jeremiah 1:6, 18, 19.

Therefore, if fears and anxiety cause you suffering, do not conclude that you lack faith or that Jehovah has rejected you. On the contrary, “Jehovah is near to those that are broken at heart; and those who are crushed in spirit he saves.”—Psalm 34:18.

Indeed, the Bible examples mentioned above show that even stalwart men of faith grappled with feelings of inadequacy. While not requiring more than each could reasonably give, Jehovah helped Elijah, Paul, Moses, and Jeremiah to accomplish more than they might have expected. Since Jehovah “well knows the formation of us, remembering that we are dust,” be assured that he can do the same for you.—Psalm 103:14.

[Footnotes]

Some doctors recommend that if this step seems overwhelming, practice simply imagining yourself in the circumstance you fear. Unfold the scene with as much detail as possible. Your anxiety level may rise; but keep reminding yourself that the disapproval of others is not as likely or as severe as you think, and construct the ending of the scene to support that view.

Those who consider taking medication should weigh the risks and the benefits. They should also consider whether the phobia is severe enough to warrant drug therapy. Many experts feel that medication works best when it is combined with a treatment that addresses the phobic’s fears and behavior.

[Box on page 8]

Watch Your Breathing!

SOME social phobics are able to reduce the intensity of their physical symptoms by giving attention to their breathing. At first, this might sound strange. After all, everyone knows how to breathe! But experts say that many people with anxiety problems do not breathe properly. Often, their breathing is too shallow, too fast, or too much from the chest.

Practice inhaling and exhaling slowly. Breathing through the nose rather than through the mouth will make this easier. Also, learn to breathe from the diaphragm, since breathing from your upper chest increases your risk of hyperventilating. To test yourself in this regard, when standing up, place one hand above your waist and the other in the middle of your chest. While breathing, notice which hand is moving more. If it is the hand on your chest, you need to practice breathing from the diaphragm.

Of course, not every breath has to come from the diaphragm. (The normal ratio of diaphragm-to-chest breaths is about 4 to 1, but this will vary at times.) And a word of caution is appropriate: Those with chronic respiratory conditions—such as emphysema or asthma—should see a doctor before adopting new breathing techniques.

[Box on page 9]

When Fear Leads to Panic

FOR some social phobics, anxiety is so intense that it leads to a panic attack. This sudden, overpowering fright often leaves its victim hyperventilating, feeling faint, and believing that he or she is having a heart attack.

Experts say that it is best not to fight the attack. Rather, they advise the sufferer to ‘ride out’ the anxiety until it passes. “You can’t stop it once it starts,” says Jerilyn Ross. “It just has to run its course. Just keep telling yourself it’s frightening, but it’s not dangerous. It’s going to pass.”

Melvin Green, director of an agency that treats agoraphobia, likens the attack to a small wave that can be seen approaching a beach. “This represents your initial feelings of anxiety,” he says. “As the wave approaches land it grows larger and larger. This represents your feelings of anxiety growing. Soon the wave is very large and peaks. It then flows down into a smaller and smaller wave until it disperses on the beach. This image represents the start and finish of the anxiety attack.” Green says that sufferers should not fight the feelings but flow with them until they pass.

[Pictures on page 8, 9]

To help alleviate anxiety, watch your diet, exercise regularly, and get proper rest

[Picture on page 10]

Jehovah helped men like Moses to accomplish more in their service than they might have expected

Kenya’s Rhino Orphans

BY AWAKE! CORRESPONDENT IN KENYA

WHAT happens in the wild when a young animal becomes separated from its parents? Likely it will be killed by predators. To prevent that, game rangers in Kenya rescue such infant animals and take them to animal orphanages. One of the best-known is operated by Daphne Sheldrick at Nairobi National Park. For decades, Sheldrick has reared and restored to the wild many animals, including buffalo, antelope, civet cats, warthogs, mongooses, elephants, and rhino.

Last year she had in her care two baby black rhino, Magnette and Magnum. Magnette is the calf of Nairobi Park’s Edith, who is still living. The calf was brought to the orphanage in mid-February of 1997, having somehow become separated from its mother. When the rangers finally located Magnette’s mother, five days had passed. By then, the likelihood that the mother would accept the calf was remote because of the length of separation and the smell of humans on the animal.

Magnum was born on January 30, 1997, and is the calf of a rhino named Scud, who had lost the use of her right foreleg, possibly by stepping into a hole while at full gallop. Although extensive efforts were made to heal the injury, bone infection developed, and Scud had to be euthanatized three weeks after giving birth to Magnum.

Rearing Rhino

Young rhino are eager to please and easy to handle, but rearing them is no living-room project. At four-hour intervals during the day, they nurse from a king-size baby bottle, drinking a full-cream milk formula. They also dine on shrubs and bushes. Though baby rhino are only about 18 inches [about 40 centimeters] tall and weigh between 60 and 80 pounds [between 30 and 40 kilograms] at birth, they put on weight at an astounding rate—gaining two pounds [a kilogram] a day! When full grown, a rhino weighs more than a ton.

Their keepers accompany Magnette and Magnum on long walks through the park each day. These walks are not merely for exercise; they serve an important purpose—the integrating of the rhino into the wild. Let us consider how this is done.

Rhino have weak eyesight, but they possess a keen sense of smell and a phenomenal memory. Thus, rhino first come to know each other by scent. Rhino mark the boundaries of their territory by leaving dung piles (middens) and by spraying their urine on bushes.

Under normal circumstances, a calf is protected by its mother, its unique scent trail mingling with hers until the next calf is due. By then, the baby will be fully integrated into and accepted by the established rhino community. For newcomers like Magnette and Magnum, the situation is different. They must add their droppings to the established middens of the rhino who live in the area before physical contact with them takes place. So during their long daily walks, the rhino orphans make their own contribution to established middens in the bush. In this way their scent is discovered, investigated, and finally accepted by the local rhino population. The relocation of hand-raised rhino into the wild is, therefore, a complicated process that can take several years.

What Future for the Orphans?

According to the World Wildlife Fund, in 1970 there were about 65,000 black rhino in Africa. Today there are fewer than 2,500. This drastic decline has been caused by poachers who have slaughtered rhino for their skin and horn. On the black market, rhino horn is worth more than its weight in gold. Why is it highly prized?

For one thing, in some countries in the Far East, many believe that powdered horn can reduce fever. Chemical tests have shown that there may be some truth in this but only if administered in amounts far higher than those found in current remedies. Of course, there are many other medicines that reduce a fever.

Rhino horn is also sought after for cultural reasons. In one country of the Middle East, the curved dagger is a coveted emblem of manhood. So prized is a dagger with a rhino-horn handle that buyers are willing to pay $580 for a handle of new horn and $1,200 for a handle of antique horn.

As a result of poaching, Kenya lost more than 95 percent of its rhino in less than 20 years. By the early 1990’s, the number had fallen from 20,000 to barely 400. Since then, because of intense protection measures, the rhino population has increased to about 450. Kenya is now one of only three African countries in which black rhino populations are either stable or increasing. So the future for Magnette and Magnum looks good, and their keepers hope that they will eventually join the local rhino community and live long and happy lives.

[Picture on page 12]

Magnum (left) and Magnette at four months of age

Have Scientists Really Found Black Holes?

IT SEEMS like science fiction—once-bright stars becoming invisible, crushed by their own gravitational force, with nothing, not even light, escaping their grasp. Many astronomers believe that such black holes may be commonplace in the universe. Would you like to know more about them? The story begins in the beautiful northern constellation called Cygnus, meaning “the Swan.”

Cygnus X-1—A Black Hole?

Since the 1960’s, astronomers have been interested in a certain area of the constellation Cygnus. Orbiting observatories launched above Earth’s atmosphere detected a powerful source of X rays coming from this area, dubbed Cygnus X-1.

Scientists have long known that the hotter an object is, the more energy it gives off at shorter, more energetic electromagnetic wavelengths. If you heat a piece of iron in a very hot furnace, at first it will glow red and then yellow and white as the iron gets hotter. In that way, stars are like iron bars. Relatively cool stars, about 3,000 K, are reddish in color, while a yellow star, like the Sun, has a surface temperature closer to 6,000 K.a However, you would have to heat stellar gas to millions of kelvins to get the X-ray radiation coming from Cygnus X-1. No star has a surface temperature like that.

At the location of Cygnus X-1, astronomers have found a star with a surface temperature estimated at 30,000 K—very hot, indeed, but not nearly hot enough to account for the X rays. This star, cataloged as HDE 226868, is estimated to be about 30 times as massive as the Sun and 6,000 light-years away from Earth. This supergiant has a companion, and the two are whirling around each other in an orbital waltz every 5.6 days. Scientists calculate that the companion is only a few million miles from HDE 226868. According to some sources, this companion is about ten times as massive as the Sun. But there is something very strange about this companion—it is invisible. No normal star that big should be invisible at such a distance from Earth. An object that massive that appears to give off X rays but not visible light is a good candidate for being a black hole, say scientists.

A Trip to a Black Hole

Imagine that you could travel to Cygnus X-1. Assuming it is indeed a black hole, what you would see might well look like the illustration on page 17. The big star is HDE 226868. While this star is millions of miles in diameter, the black hole may be about 40 miles [about 60 kilometers] in diameter. The tiny black dot in the center of the whirlpool of glowing gas is the event horizon, or surface, of the black hole. It is not a solid surface, however, but more like a shadow. It is the edge of the region in which the gravity around the black hole is so strong that not even light can escape. Many scientists think that inside the horizon, in the center of the black hole, is a point of zero volume and infinite density, known as a singularity, into which all the matter in the black hole has disappeared.

The black hole is draining the companion star’s outer layers of gas. The gas from the star forms a glowing pancake as the gas spirals faster and faster and becomes heated by friction around the black hole. This disk of superheated gas produces X rays just outside the black hole, as the gas is accelerated to fantastic speeds by the intense gravity. Of course, once the gas falls into the black hole, no more X rays—or anything else—can escape.

Cygnus X-1 is a spectacular sight, but don’t get too close! Not only are the X rays deadly but so is its gravity. On Earth, a slight difference in the force of gravity exists between your head and your feet while you are standing. This difference creates a tiny pull that cannot be felt. However, at Cygnus X-1, that small difference is multiplied 150 billion times, creating a force that would actually stretch your body, as if invisible hands were pulling your feet one way and your head another!

Cygnus A—Is It a Supermassive Black Hole?

There is another mysterious area in the constellation Cygnus. Visually, this area contains only the very faint speck of a distant galaxy, but it emits some of the strongest radio waves in the sky. It is called Cygnus A, and ever since it was discovered over 50 years ago, scientists have puzzled over it.

It is mind-boggling to imagine the scale of Cygnus A. While Cygnus X-1 is within our own galaxy, a few thousand light-years away, Cygnus A is thought to be hundreds of millions of light-years distant. Although Cygnus X-1 and its visible companion are only about one light-minute apart, the plumes formed by the two radio jets in Cygnus A are hundreds of thousands of light-years apart.b Something in the center of Cygnus A has evidently been firing these intense jets of energy in opposite directions for hundreds of thousands or even millions of years, like a sort of cosmic ray gun. Detailed radio maps of the center of Cygnus A reveal that compared with the jets, the ray gun is very small, less than a light-month in size. If it had wobbled during all that time, the beams would be crooked. But the mysterious jets are perfectly straight, as if the ray gun firing them had been stabilized by an enormous gyroscope.

What could be going on? “Of the dozens of ideas that had been proposed by the early 1980s to explain the central engine,” writes Professor Kip S. Thorne, “only one entailed a superb gyroscope with a long life, a size less than a light-month, and an ability to generate powerful jets. That unique idea was a gigantic, spinning black hole.”

Other Black Hole Suspects

In 1994 the newly repaired Hubble Space Telescope took a close look at “nearby” galaxy M87, estimated to be 50 million light-years away. With its updated optics, Hubble detected a whirlpool of gas in the center of M87 that was whirling around some object at an astonishing 1.2 million miles [2 million kilometers] an hour. What could cause the gas to move at such a speed? Calculations showed that the object within the whirlpool must have a mass equal to at least two billion Suns. But that object is crammed into a “tiny” space the size of our solar system. The only thing that scientists can imagine that would possibly fit this description is a supermassive black hole.

Black hole candidates have now been detected in the center of a number of nearby galaxies, including our “next-door” neighbor, the Andromeda galaxy, only about two million light-years away. But there may be a giant black hole even closer to us than Andromeda! Recent observations suggest that a jumbo black hole may well reside in the center of our own galaxy, the Milky Way. Something in a small area, with an estimated mass of 2.4 million Suns, is causing the stars near the center of our galaxy to orbit around it at tremendous speeds. Physicist Thorne notes: “Evidence, gradually accumulated during the 1980s, suggests that such holes inhabit not only the cores of most quasars and radio galaxies, but also the cores of most large, normal (non-radio) galaxies such as the Milky Way and Andromeda.”

Have scientists really discovered black holes? Possibly. Certainly they have discovered some very strange objects in the constellation Cygnus and elsewhere that at present can most easily be explained as black holes. But new data can also challenge commonly held theories.

Over 3,500 years ago, God asked Job: “Have you come to know the statutes of the heavens?” (Job 38:33) Despite impressive scientific progress, that question is still timely. After all, it is just when man begins to think he understands the universe that some new, unexpected observation comes along to upset his carefully constructed theories. In the meantime, we can gaze at the constellations in wonder and take delight in their beauty!

[Footnotes]

Kelvin (K) is a temperature scale used by scientists, which starts at absolute 0 (believed to be the coldest temperature possible) and goes up in degrees Celsius. Since absolute 0 is -273 degrees Celsius, then 0 degrees Celsius is 273 K.

A light-year is a unit of length equal to the distance that light travels in one year in a vacuum, or about 5,878,000,000,000 miles [about 9,461,000,000,000 kilometers]. Correspondingly, a light-minute is the distance light would travel in one minute, a light-month the distance light would travel in one month, and so forth.

[Box on page 16, 17]

What Would Make a Black Hole?

PRESENT scientific understanding is that stars shine because of a ceaseless struggle between gravity and nuclear forces. Without gravity to squeeze the gas deep inside the star, nuclear fusion could not take place. On the other hand, without nuclear fusion to resist the pull of gravity, some very strange things can happen to stars.

Scientists believe that when stars about the size of our sun exhaust their nuclear fuel of hydrogen and helium, gravity squeezes them down to hot cinders about the size of the earth, called white dwarfs. A white dwarf may contain as much mass as the sun, but its mass is crammed into a space a million times smaller.

You can think of ordinary matter as mostly empty space, with almost all the mass of each atom located in a tiny nucleus surrounded by a much larger cloud of electrons. But inside a white dwarf, gravity squeezes the electron cloud into a tiny fraction of its previous volume, shrinking the star to the size of a planet. For stars about the size of our sun, at this point there is a standoff between gravity and forces possessed by the electrons, preventing any further compression.

But what of stars heavier than the sun, with more gravity? For stars more than 1.4 times as massive as the sun, the force of gravity is so great that the electron cloud is squeezed out of existence. The protons and electrons then combine into neutrons. The neutrons resist further squeezing, provided the gravity is not too strong. Instead of a white dwarf the size of a planet, the result is a neutron star the size of a small asteroid. Neutron stars consist of the densest known material in the universe.

What, though, if the gravity is further increased? Scientists believe that in stars about three times the mass of the sun, the gravity is too strong for the neutrons to withstand. No form of matter known to physicists can resist the cumulative force of all this gravity. It seems that the asteroid-size ball of neutrons would get squeezed not just into a smaller ball but into nothing, into a point called a singularity, or some other as yet undescribed theoretical entity. The star would apparently disappear, leaving behind only its gravity and a black hole where it used to be. The black hole would form a gravitational shadow in place of the former star. It would be a region in which gravity was so strong that nothing—not even light—could escape.

[Pictures on page 16]

The Cygnus constellation contains, among others, the North America Nebula (1) and the Veil Nebula (2). Cygnus X-1 (3) is located partway down the swan’s neck

Cygnus (the Swan)

[Credit Line]

Tony and Daphne Hallas/Astro Photo

[Pictures on page 17]

Cygnus X-1 in Theory

Black holes are detected by their effects on other bodies. This illustration shows gases from a star being pulled into a black hole

Artist’s conception of a black hole (within red rectangle), and enlargement (below)

[Picture Credit Line on page 14]

Einstein: U.S. National Archives photo

Why Can’t I Concentrate?

Young People Ask . . .

Why Can’t I Concentrate?

“Sometimes it’s accidental. I’m listening at a congregation meeting, and then, all of a sudden, my mind starts to wander. Ten minutes later I come back.”—Jesse.

“PAY ATTENTION!” Do you often hear those words from your teachers or parents? If you do, then maybe you are having a problem keeping your mind on things. As a result, your grades may be suffering. And you may find that others view you negatively, brushing you off as being zoned-out, spacey, or just plain rude.

More important, an inability to pay attention can have a negative impact on your spirituality. After all, the Bible itself commands: “Pay attention to how you listen.” (Luke 8:18) In fact, Christians are commanded to “pay more than the usual attention” to spiritual matters. (Hebrews 2:1) And if you find it hard to concentrate, you may find it hard to heed this counsel.

What may be the problem? In some cases lack of concentration may be the result of a physical problem. Attention Deficit Disorder, for example, is believed by some researchers to involve a malfunction of the brain’s neurotransmitter systems.a Some youths have undiagnosed problems, such as hearing or vision loss. These too can impede one’s ability to pay attention. Researchers have found that youths in general have more difficulty concentrating than adults. Inattentiveness is thus common among youths, though it is seldom the result of a medical disorder.

Your Changing Thought Patterns

If you are having trouble concentrating, more than likely you are simply suffering the pangs of growing up. The apostle Paul wrote: “When I was a babe, I used to speak as a babe, to think as a babe, to reason as a babe; but now that I have become a man, I have done away with the traits of a babe.” (1 Corinthians 13:11) Yes, as you move toward adulthood, your thinking patterns change. According to the book Adolescent Development, “new conceptual abilities . . . emerge in early adolescence.” You develop the ability to comprehend and analyze abstract thoughts and concepts. You begin to have a deeper grasp of morals, ethics, and other broad issues. You begin thinking about your future as an adult.

The problem? Having all these new thoughts, ideas, and concepts swirling around in your brain can be very distracting. You no longer think on the simple, basic level of a child. Now your brain impels you to analyze and question what you see and hear. A comment by a teacher or a lecturer can trigger an exciting mental excursion. But unless you learn to control your stray thoughts, you can miss out on valuable information. Interestingly, the Bible says that the righteous man Isaac spent time quietly meditating. (Genesis 24:63) Perhaps setting aside some time each day to sit back, meditate, and sort things out might help you to be more focused at other times.

Emotions and Hormones

Your emotions may also be a source of distraction. You try to concentrate on what you are reading or listening to, but you find yourself thinking about other things. You alternate between boredom and excitement, depression and elation. Well, relax! You are not going crazy. In all probability, it is simply a case of your hormones playing havoc with you. You are experiencing the changes of puberty.

Kathy McCoy and Charles Wibbelsman write: “Feelings abound in the adolescent years . . . This moodiness is, to some extent, part of being an adolescent. Part of this has to do with the stress of all the changes you’re experiencing right now.” Furthermore, you are approaching “the bloom of youth”—the time when sexual desires are at their peak. (1 Corinthians 7:36) Says writer Ruth Bell: “The body changes of puberty often bring stronger sexual feelings. You may find yourself thinking more about sex, getting sexually aroused more easily, even at times feeling preoccupied with sex.”b

Jesse, quoted at the outset, experiences the mental wandering that is so common among teenagers: “Sometimes I think about girls or some worry I have or what I’m going to do later.” Eventually, the storm of emotions will settle down. In the meantime, work on self-discipline. The apostle Paul wrote: “I pummel my body and lead it as a slave.” (1 Corinthians 9:27) The more you learn to control your emotions, the more you will be able to concentrate.

Your Sleep Habits

Your growing body needs sufficient sleep to help you develop physically and to allow your brain to sort out the many new concepts and emotions you encounter daily. However, many teens keep a schedule that affords them little time for sleep. A neurologist comments: “The organism will not forget the hours of sleep that a person owes it. On the contrary, it will always remember and will suddenly present a bill that can be translated into lapses of memory, concentration problems, and slow thinking ability.”

Some researchers believe that simply adding an hour or more of sleep each night can greatly improve one’s ability to concentrate. True, the Bible condemns laziness and love of sleeping. (Proverbs 20:13) However, it makes good sense to get enough rest to function efficiently.—Ecclesiastes 4:6.

Diet and Concentration

Another problem may be diet. Fatty and sugary foods are popular among teens. Researchers say that while junk foods may taste great, they appear to reduce mental sharpness. Studies likewise indicate that mental performance wanes after a meal of carbohydrates, such as bread, cereal, rice, or pasta. This may be because carbohydrates increase the amount of a chemical called serotonin in the brain and make a person feel drowsy. Some nutritionists thus suggest eating protein-rich foods before any activity that requires mental alertness.

The TV and Computer Generation

For years educators have felt that TV and its fast-moving images shorten the attention span of youths, and some are now pointing a similar finger of blame at the computer terminal. While there is much debate among experts as to exactly how these modern technologies affect young people, spending an excessive amount of time watching TV or playing computer games can hardly be healthy. Admits one youth: “With things like video games, computers, and the Internet, we kids are conditioned to get what we want fast.”

The problem is, many things in life are only achieved through effort, perseverance, and old-fashioned patience. (Compare Hebrews 6:12; James 5:7.) So never assume that things must be fast-moving and entertaining to be of value. Although watching TV and playing computer games can be entertaining, why not paint, draw, or learn to play a musical instrument? Such skills may enhance your powers of concentration.

Are there other ways you can develop your powers of concentration? Indeed, there are, and a future article will explore some of them.

[Footnotes]

See Awake! issues of November 22, 1994, pages 3-12; June 22, 1996, pages 11-13; and February 22, 1997, pages 5-10.

See the article “Young People Ask . . . How Can I Get My Mind off the Opposite Sex?” in our August 8, 1994, issue.

[Blurb on page 20]

Researchers say that junk foods appear to reduce mental sharpness

[Blurb on page 20]

“Sometimes I think about girls or some worry I have”

[Picture on page 19]

Do you often find it hard to pay attention in class?

Dengue—A Fever From a Bite

By Awake! correspondent in the Philippines

UNNOTICED, a mosquito lands on the little girl’s bare arm. The insect quickly pierces her skin and taps the bloodstream. After a few moments, the mother glances at her daughter and spots the mosquito. With a quick swat, it is gone. Is that the end of it? Maybe not. The mosquito may be gone, but its brief invasion into the child’s bloodstream has left unwanted organisms that are capable of causing disease.

Within two weeks the child experiences chills, headache, pain behind the eyes, extreme aching in her joints, and a high fever. As the illness progresses, she develops a red rash and becomes completely exhausted. She has contracted dengue, a fever from a mosquito’s bite.

However, especially if the child has had a previous dengue infection, she may develop the more serious form of the disease, dengue hemorrhagic fever (DHF). With it, the capillaries leak, resulting in skin hemorrhages. There may be internal bleeding. Without proper treatment, the patient may experience profound shock and circulatory failure, leading to rapid death.

What exactly is dengue? Can it affect you? How can you protect yourself and your family? Let’s take a closer look.

What Is Dengue?

Dengue, also called breakbone fever, is just one of a number of diseases that can result from a mosquito’s bite. The actual cause of the disease is a virus. An infected mosquito (that is, a mosquito that has previously bitten an infected human) carries the virus in its salivary glands. In the process of biting a person to get blood, it transfers the virus to the human.

There are four types of dengue virus. Infection with one type does not provide immunity to the other three types. After one infection, if a victim is bitten by a mosquito carrying another type, the result can be DHF.

“Two Fifths of the World’s Population” at Risk

According to the World Health Organization (WHO), dengue threatens 2.5 billion people, “two fifths of the world’s population.” Asiaweek reported: “Over 100 tropical and sub-tropical countries have reported dengue outbreaks, and there are tens of millions of reported cases each year, with 95% of the infected being children.”

It is unclear when dengue was first recognized on the world scene. A report on “knee fever” in Cairo in 1779 may actually be referring to dengue. Since that time, dengue has been reported worldwide. Particularly since World War II, dengue has had a significant impact on human health, beginning in Southeast Asia. Multiple types of the virus began to circulate, and this led to the more dangerous hemorrhagic variety. A publication produced by WHO says: “The first real outbreak of haemorrhagic fever in Asia was recognized in Manila in 1954.” Other countries followed, notably Thailand, Vietnam, Malaysia, and neighboring areas. These early outbreaks in Southeast Asia had fatality rates ranging from 10 to 50 percent, but as more was learned about the disease, these rates dropped.

Since the 1960’s, laxity in programs to control the mosquito that carries the virus has contributed to an explosive increase in dengue. As dengue has spread, so has DHF. Only 9 countries had epidemics before 1970, but by 1995 this number had grown to 41. WHO estimates that yearly, 500,000 cases of DHF require hospitalization.

Although the disease is less known outside tropical areas, in some cases travelers to regions where there is a risk of contracting it have become infected and brought the disease home with them. For example, toward the end of 1996, The New York Times told of dengue cases in the United States—in Massachusetts, New York, Oregon, and Texas.

Particular Dangers of DHF

As noted earlier, DHF is the life-threatening form of dengue. One of the dangers of DHF is that people are fooled into thinking that it is not that serious. Many mistake it for a case of the flu. However, postponing action may allow the illness to advance to the more serious stage in which the blood platelet count drops drastically, hemorrhaging begins (internally or through the gums, nose, or skin), and blood pressure sinks. The patient may collapse. By the time the family realizes that the condition is serious, he is already going into shock. They rush him to the hospital. There, the doctors find that he is already experiencing circulatory failure. Because of the critical situation, intravenous fluid replacement is ordered.

Protecting Your Family

What can be done to minimize the effects of this disease? If the family lives where dengue is prevalent and a family member has a high fever lasting longer than a day, the family should wisely consult a doctor. This is particularly important if the sick one has other dengue symptoms, such as a rash or pain in muscles and joints or behind the eyes.

The doctor may take a blood test. Nonhemorrhagic dengue may require only simple treatment. But if testing indicates that it is DHF, the doctor will likely recommend careful fluid management. This may include oral rehydration solutions, such as those used for diarrhea, or, in more critical situations, intravenous fluid replacement using Ringer’s solution, saline solutions, or others. In treating cases of shock, the doctor may prescribe certain medications to help raise blood pressure and restore platelet levels.

If there is significant bleeding, doctors may be inclined to recommend a blood transfusion. Some may quickly recommend this without considering the alternatives. However, in addition to being against God’s law, this is usually unnecessary. (Acts 15:29) Experience has shown that careful management of circulatory fluids from the onset of the disease is the most important factor in the treatment. Cooperation between patient and doctor in this can help to eliminate confrontations over the matter of blood transfusion. This all emphasizes the importance of quick action when a person suspects DHF.—See the box “What Are the Symptoms?”

Preventive Measures

One of the main carriers of the dengue virus is the Aedes aegypti mosquito. This species is common to tropical and subtropical areas around the world. (See accompanying map.) Aedes aegypti mosquitoes thrive in highly populated areas. Controlling the mosquito is one of the keys to controlling the disease.

Mosquito control on a worldwide scale is not easy. However, there are things that you can do to help reduce the risk around your home. The female mosquito lays eggs in water. The larvae can develop in any container that will retain water for a week or so, such as abandoned tires, discarded cans, bottles, or open coconut shells. Getting rid of such containers will eliminate mosquito breeding sites. In addition, it is recommended that you turn buckets or boats upside down. Removing standing water from gutters will also help. Interestingly, at the beginning of the 1997/98 school year, the department of health in the Philippines discouraged the use of flowerpots in school classrooms for this reason.

If someone in the home contracts dengue, take steps to avoid his being bitten by other mosquitoes that may, in turn, carry the infection to others. A properly screened or an air-conditioned building can be a protection.

What about vaccination? An appropriate vaccine is not presently available. Research is being done to develop one, but this is complicated by the fact that complete protection would require immunization against all four types of dengue. Vaccination for only one could actually increase the risk of DHF. Researchers are hopeful that an effective vaccine may be available in five to ten years.

Some researchers have been trying another approach. By using genetic engineering, they hope to prevent the dengue virus from replicating in mosquito saliva. If this works as planned, such genetically engineered mosquitoes would pass on to their offspring a resistance to dengue. Although some progress has been made, it remains to be seen how successful this will be.

At present, eradicating dengue completely does not appear to be possible. But taking practical precautions can help you and your loved ones avoid life-threatening complications from dengue—a fever from a bite.

[Box on page 22]

What Are the Symptoms?

Symptoms of both dengue fever and dengue hemorrhagic fever (DHF)

• Sudden high fever

• Severe headachea

• Pain behind the eyes

• Joint and muscle pain

• Swelling of lymph nodes

• Rash

• Exhaustion

Symptoms more specific for DHF

• Sudden collapse

• Skin hemorrhaging

• Generalized bleeding

• Cold, clammy skin

• Restlessness

• Shock with weak pulse (dengue shock syndrome)

Do not delay in seeing a doctor if symptoms are observed. Children are especially at risk

[Footnote]

Medical authorities say that aspirin should be avoided because it may aggravate bleeding.

[Box on page 23]

Tips for Travelers

Occasionally, travelers to tropical zones are infected with dengue, but dengue hemorrhagic fever is much rarer because this more serious form is normally contracted after a second dengue infection. Here are some safety suggestions for travelers:

• Wear long-sleeved shirts and long pants

• Use a mosquito repellent

• Stay away from heavily populated areas

• Stay in accommodations where you can close the windows and keep the mosquitoes out

• If you develop a fever after returning home, tell the doctor where you traveled

[Map/Picture on page 23]

Areas with recent dengue activity

Areas at risk for a dengue epidemic

Range of “Aedes aegypti,” a dengue-carrying mosquito

[Credit Line]

Source: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1997

[Pictures on page 24]

Possible breeding sites are (1) abandoned tires, (2) rain gutters, (3) flowerpots, (4) buckets or other containers, (5) discarded cans, (6) barrels

[Picture Credit Line on page 21]

From Milk to Feta

By Awake! correspondent in Greece

THE New York hosts prepared some traditional dishes that they thought their Greek guest would especially appreciate. However, when the last dish, a plate of Greek salad, was put on the dining table, the guest somewhat jokingly asked: “But where is the feta?”

Oh, yes, the feta cheese! If you think of Greek food, one of the things that may come to your mind first is fresh, white, soft, and spicy feta. In Greece, feta is a must on any traditional table, and of course, it is one of the basic ingredients of the famous Greek salad. As part of a recent effort to protect the distinctive nature and character of feta, the European Union officially recognized it as an exclusively Greek name and product, setting it apart from white cheeses produced elsewhere. To satisfy cheese lovers all over the world, Greece exports more than 9,000 tons of feta every year.

A Bit of Background

Cheese making goes back a long way in man’s history. The Bible character Job, who lived in the 17th century B.C.E. in what is now Arabia, in poetic language described how he had been formed in his mother’s womb, saying to his Creator: “Did you not proceed to pour me out as milk itself and like cheese to curdle me?” (Job 10:10) It is believed that the art of making cheese was introduced to Europe through the seafaring Phoenicians, who established colonies on Cyprus and the islands of the Aegean.

Remains of implements used in the making of cheese have been discovered both on Greece proper and on the surrounding islands, including Crete. At least one Aegean island struck coins bearing the image of little cheeses, and athletes preparing for the ancient Olympics were put on a cheese diet. In the Odyssey, Homer has the mythical Cyclops Polyphemus making sheep’s milk cheese, perhaps a forerunner of feta, which he ripened in wicker baskets in his cave. In fact, the Italian and French words for cheese (formaggio and fromage) come from the Greek word for·mosʹ, meaning “basket”—the wicker basket used for draining cheese.

The Pickling of Feta

Let us, though, come back to feta. What makes genuine feta different is that it is made exclusively from goat’s or sheep’s milk. In Greece, by law, feta is at least 70 percent sheep’s milk, with an allowance of up to 30 percent goat’s milk; cow’s milk is strictly prohibited, something that is not true of “feta” produced elsewhere. Feta is not cooked or pressed, but it is cured briefly in a brine solution that adds a salty flavor to the sharp tang of the milk.

…

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Awake!, July 22, 1998