Awake!, July 22, 1976

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Awake! — July 22, 1976

Source: jw.org

Contents

Fear Has Its Place

They Batter Little Children—Why?

Child Abuse—Things You Can Do About It

Good Conduct Unites a Family

A Journey to Ancient Corinth

Our Atmospheric “Ocean”

A Look at the ‘Lord Mayor’s Turtle’

Where Does the Yellow in an Egg Come From?

I Was a Pentecostal Pastor

What Worship Does God Approve?

Watching the World

Can You Live Forever in Happiness on Earth?

Give Your Children the Guidance They Need

Fear Has Its Place

Fear Has Its Place

FEAR can be both beneficial and harmful. An unhealthy fear may give rise to digestive troubles, blood-pressure problems and other serious bodily malfunctions. It can, in fact, be death-dealing. Says the Illustrated Medical and Health Encyclopedia: “In all life there is nothing so destructive to happiness and longevity as fear.” A wholesome fear, on the other hand, can be life-preserving, restraining a person from dangerous, foolhardy action.

Yes, like other strong emotions, fear has its place. But just what is that place? What makes fear good or bad? The Bible is most helpful in determining the answers.

“The fear of Jehovah is the start of wisdom,” says Proverbs 9:10. As to the manner in which this proper fear is expressed, the Bible tells us: “The fear of Jehovah means the hating of bad.” (Prov. 8:13) This hatred is based, not on human standards of what is bad, but on God’s standards, contained in his Word.

The “fear of Jehovah” is therefore a wholesome, beneficial fear. As the Creator, Jehovah God knows what is in the best interests of humankind. Since he is a God of love, he has outlined moral standards that promote the highest good for those who follow them. The famous English jurist Blackstone acknowledged that fact, saying: ‘God has so intimately connected, so inseparably interwoven the laws of eternal justice with the happiness of each individual that happiness cannot be attained but by observing God’s law; and, if God’s law be punctually obeyed, it cannot but induce happiness.’ A wholesome fear of God is indeed the start of wisdom in that it prompts one to act in a way that contributes to the enjoyment of a meaningful and happy life. Consider:

Servants of God are admonished: “The time that has passed by is sufficient for you to have worked out the will of the nations when you proceeded in deeds of loose conduct, lusts, excesses with wine, revelries, drinking matches.” (1 Pet. 4:3) Real benefits come to those who heed these words because they have a wholesome fear of God.

They avoid the shame, injury and heartache that result from excessive drinking of alcoholic beverages. In the United States alone alcohol abuse is implicated each year in a million serious traffic accidents, one fourth of all the suicides and half of all murders. Many thousands die each year from ailments caused or aggravated by excessive drinking. Alcohol abuse is responsible for shortening the life-span of individuals by about twelve years, on the average. So in avoiding alcohol abuse, the fearer of Jehovah God may actually be adding years to his life.

Regarding morality, the Bible counsels: “Abstain from fornication; . . . each one of you should know how to get possession of his own vessel in sanctification and honor, not in covetous sexual appetite such as also those nations have which do not know God; that no one go to the point of harming and encroach upon the rights of his brother in this matter.”​—1 Thess. 4:3-6.

How different things would be in the world if more people would have a wholesome fear of God in this area of life! Think of the mental and emotional pain that could be avoided. Cases of venereal disease, unwanted pregnancies, abortions and broken homes would certainly be less frequent than they are today. Even those who condone marital unfaithfulness are forced to acknowledge that serious problems can result therefrom. A leading science-news reporter in the United States wrote: “If you do opt for extramarital activity, remember to be very cautious about any decision to tell your spouse. Regardless of how sophisticated you think your marital partner may be, regardless of the number of times you have discussed the problem in the abstract and have said that it wouldn’t matter, most experts agree that in almost all cases it does matter.”

Another benefit for the person who fears Jehovah God is that he preserves a clean conscience. He does not have to worry about the possibility that his conduct will be exposed, bring disgrace or give rise to other serious problems.

A proper fear of the Creator even eliminates what is generally viewed as the greatest unwholesome fear​—a morbid fear of death, especially of a violent death. This fear of death has been a tool by which ruthless men have controlled many people. Succumbing to fear of torture or execution, many men and women have gone against their conscience and obeyed the orders of dictatorial superiors to commit horrible atrocities against their fellow humans.

This has not been the case with fearers of Jehovah God. They know that the present life is not all there is. Even though men may kill them, they do not doubt God’s promise of a resurrection. They, therefore, act in harmony with Jesus Christ’s words: “Do not fear those who kill the body and after this are not able to do anything more. But I will indicate to you whom to fear: Fear him who after killing has authority to throw into Gehenna,” that is, a symbolic place representing total annihilation. (Luke 12:4, 5; Matt. 10:28) Yes, not man, but God can destroy in Gehenna a person’s title to be a living being.

There is nothing uncertain about death in the case of those who truly fear God. The Bible says: “His spirit goes out, he goes back to his ground; in that day his thoughts do perish.” (Ps. 146:4) So death is simply a state of total inactivity and unconsciousness​—a sleep from which an awakening is possible.

Accurate knowledge of the Bible is thus seen to have a part in liberating a person from many damaging fears. It is of interest that medical men acknowledge that the greatest fears are prompted by lack of knowledge. The Illustrated Medical and Health Encyclopedia says: “We do not fear what we can see or what we can understand nearly so much as we fear the things we do not see or that we cannot understand.”

For this reason study of the Holy Scriptures is needed to rid one’s mind of unwholesome fears, replacing these with a proper regard for the Creator. Hundreds of thousands have done this in recent years and rejoice in the fine results from a proper fear of the Creator. Are you among those persons? Would you like to be? Then take the time to find out how helpful the Bible can be to you.

They Batter Little Children—Why?

They Batter Little Children​—Why?

“IT READS like a primer for concentration camp torturers or experts in the practice of human degradation.” To what was the newspaper writer who penned these words referring?

Child abuse. Recent reports state that it has now reached “epidemic” proportions in the United States and other parts of the world.

How serious is this epidemic? “CHILD ABUSE​—‘DISEASE’ KILLS TWO CHILDREN DAILY” declared a headline in American Medical News of April 21, 1975. A month later The Journal of Legal Medicine reported: “The most common cause of childhood death today may be child abuse. According to one commentator, the incidence of deaths due to child abuse, or battering, is greater than the total of those due to accidents and infectious diseases combined.”

Toward the end of 1975, a news release by United Press International stated: “More than a million American children suffer physical abuse or neglect each year.” Reporting on information obtained from Douglas Besharov, an official of the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, the news item continued: “By the narrowest definitions, he said, 2,000 children a year die from circumstances associated with abuse or neglect.’’ Data indicates that children who suffer such abuse are usually less than five years of age and frequently under a year.

Appalling Cruelty to Children

Accounts of child abuse are heartrending. According to a police report, a Bronx, New York, man subjected four young children to the following episodes of horror:

● Coating their knees with pancake syrup and forcing them to scurry on their knees back and forth across a floor sprinkled with rice.

● Removing the children’s clothes and placing them on shelves inside a metal cabinet seven feet (2.1 meters) tall; then pouring hot candle wax upon their buttocks and locking them in the cabinet for an hour or more.

● When because of noisemaking the seven-year-old boy awakened him, the man stuffed the lad into the oven, closed the door and lit it. The child escaped a fiendish death only because his mother rushed into the room and released him.

In another instance an eighteen-month-old baby boy was found dangling from a plant at the edge of a cliff 300 feet (91 meters) above a raging surf. He had been abandoned. In her book Children Are People Too, Virginia Coigney states: “Parents have chopped off small hands, burned, mutilated, beaten, starved, chained, imprisoned and murdered their young.” Besides physical abuse, infants and toddlers frequently experience verbal, emotional and sexual mistreatment.

What type of parents or other adults would subject children to such cruelties? Is it mainly the mentally depraved, economically impoverished or some other unfortunate category of persons?

“No Stereotype”

Actually child abuse cuts across racial, economic and social lines. “There should . . . be no stereotype of the abusing parent,” notes Virginia Coigney. “If the problem is studied in Baltimore, more parents will be black; if studied in Salt Lake City, they will be white. Racial factors depend on the composition of the group studied.” The same author goes on to point out:

“Child abuse itself is seldom the result of even a dislike of children, much less hatred. Experts, with few exceptions, agree that the battering parent loves the child he batters. If not that particular child, then other children. There is ample evidence that the child abuser wants to act differently, and in the vast majority of cases it is the abuser who brings his actions to the attention of the appropriate authorities, apparently in the hopes of protecting the child from his [the parent’s] illness. And illness it is. Child abuse has been described as a chronic illness with acute traumatic recurrent episodes.”

What causes this “illness”? How can a person prevent it from getting a hold on him?

Uncontrolled Anger​—Why?

Much research has been done to lay bare the causes of child abuse. In nearly every case one element is present. What is that? According to an interview with Dr. C. Henry Kempe, an expert on child abuse, more than 90 percent of parents who abuse children do so out of uncontrolled anger. What incites this?

Often anger results when circumstances arise for which one or both parents are not prepared. Sadly the new circumstance is often a couple’s first baby. “Many young girls have no idea of what it means to take care of a child,” explains Dr. Jane Gray, a co-worker with Dr. Kempe. “No one tells them about changing diapers, fighting down a fever, cleaning up spilled food, getting up in the night.” Some parents who are delighted to care for a helpless infant succumb to despair and rage when the little one starts walking about, climbing out of its crib or playpen and ‘getting into everything.’ Others do well with older children, but cannot cope with infants.

A major factor in child abuse is urban living. Overcrowded cities with air, water and noise pollution create tension that many adults cannot handle. All too often helpless children become the victims when such adults ‘blow their top.’

Pointing to another factor in child abuse, an article in the Detroit News remarked: “Experts are concerned that a sharp rise in child abuse cases may be a by-product of rising unemployment in the metropolitan Detroit area.” Not only do unemployed fathers suffer from a feeling of uselessness, but they find themselves in the presence of their children for greater parts of each day, rather than the hour or two they used to spend with them when employed. Men are seldom equipped to cope with the squeals, wiggles and incessant movement of very young children.

The roots of child abuse, however, usually stem from deeper, more personal levels. How so?

Parents Feel “Not OK”

Persons concerned with eliminating child abuse urge parents to look at themselves. These parents often harbor unrealistic expectations of their children. Why? Carole Bowdry, head of a child-abuse project in Dallas, Texas, pointed out: “Many abusive parents have low self-esteem and have been made to feel ‘not OK,’ that there was no way they could meet their own parents’ expectations. As a result, when they moved into maturity and had their own children, they began to play act being OK by telling their children, ‘You’re not, but I am.’”

Starved for love, these parents who were abused as children often expect impossible things from their offspring. Commenting on a study headed by Dr. Kempe, writer Edward Edelson explains:

“Obviously, every case is different. But the one constant factor in almost every case, Dr. Kempe’s group discovered, is that a battered child grows up to be a battering parent. Rejected by their own parents, convinced of their own inadequacy, they have difficulties in establishing normal relationships with other people and expect a great deal of their children. Those expectations never are fulfilled, because no normal child could be the perfect being that these parents want. And so the child is beaten, to start the cycle again.”

Similar were the results of a study by the Massachusetts Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children. This group investigated child-abuse cases in 115 families with 180 children. The results showed that in nine out of ten cases child abusers have “serious social problems.” They are mostly loners, with little or no group association. Many of such parents seek satisfaction of nearly all their needs for companionship and affection from a child (or children). They view the youngsters as “miniature adults” and require them to display affection, motivation and self-control characteristic of grown-ups. Of course, no infant or toddler can meet such expectations. Yet their failure is viewed as willful disobedience and they are punished accordingly.

Effect of the “New Morality”

Attitudes toward sexual morality have changed radically in recent years. Today it is popular for men and women to swap sexual partners at their whim. Whatever your view of this may be, did you realize that it has contributed to the increase in child abuse? In what way?

Dr. Peggy Ferry, a children’s neurologist at the University of Oregon’s Medical School, observes: “The new boy friend is frequently enraged at the small, irritable child. The child may remind him of the mother’s previous lover, or it may interfere with the recreational plans of the couple.” It was such a “boy friend” who thought up the tortures mentioned at the beginning of this article.

Tragic indeed are the multiplying reports of the battering, torturing and murdering of helpless children. We have considered some principal causes of child abuse. How can adults come to grips with the causes and overcome the inclination to batter little children?

Child Abuse—Things You Can Do About It

Child Abuse​—Things You Can Do About It

THE “epidemic” of child abuse has now reached alarming proportions. As noted in the preceding article, a variety of circumstances and attitudes affecting parents lead to mistreatment of little ones.

How can parents and other adults cope with the tendency to abuse children? One thing is to realize the harmful results of child abuse. Have you thought seriously about this?

A Pittsburgh research team carried on a study of twenty abused youngsters. A report of this study explains:

“Most of them appeared to be permanently damaged mentally, physically, and emotionally. Only two out of the twenty could be described as completely normal. More than half were underweight, some were extremely malnourished, six also showed signs of central nervous system damage. In two cases this was clearly the result of blows received on the head. Three of the group had marked physical defects: one had a skull deformity, another paralysis of the lower extremities, and a third had permanent eye damage. Two others were under-sized and underweight, four scored below 80 on I.Q. tests, four were emotionally disturbed; about half of the group had speech problems.”

Did you know that similar ill effects can result from shaking a small child? This too can lead to permanent brain damage. Constant screaming and otherwise vocally assaulting youngsters are other things that lastingly harm children.

The Scriptures admonish everyone desiring to meet God’s approval: “Let all malicious bitterness and anger and wrath and screaming and abusive speech be taken away from you along with all badness.” (Eph. 4:31) That strikes at the root of nearly every case of child abuse, namely, uncontrolled anger.

“But I Have a Vicious Temper”

Is that your problem? What can you do to avoid angry outbursts?

Getting a correct viewpoint of anger is important. Doubtless your own experience has taught you that today’s world views anger and violence as an acceptable way of coping with problems and pressures. But have the two world wars and numerous other conflicts that have resulted from that attitude shown it to be beneficial?

According to the Scriptures, anger and violence are an indication, not of strength, but of weakness. We read: “A stupid man gives free rein to his anger; a wise man waits and lets it grow cool.” (Prov. 29:11, New English Bible) Illustrating the weakened condition of an enraged person, the Bible further states: “Like a city that is breached and left unwalled is a man who cannot control his temper.”​—Prov. 25:28, NE, margin.

How can you better control your temper? A basic step is to heed the further Scriptural advice: “Do not have companionship with anyone given to anger; and with a man having fits of rage you must not enter in, that you may not get familiar with his paths and certainly take a snare for your soul.” (Prov. 22:24, 25) That should be easy for you to obey, for likely it is within your power to choose the persons with whom you regularly associate. Seeking companionship with mild-tempered individuals will aid you in maintaining self-control.

Can you avoid situations in which your child is likely to provoke anger? What about engaging a baby-sitter while you do your shopping, or shopping at a time when other family members can care for the children? When children become cranky because of being overtired, many discerning parents stop whatever they are doing and sit down with them on a bench or any nearby facility that will serve the purpose. A few words of comfort, rather than a rebuke, and the little ones usually calm down.

Some may view this as overly doting upon youngsters who ought to “know better” than to cause such a fuss. But often the children are simply worn out from several hours on their feet or otherwise expending their energy. In connection with such cases the Bible urges paying attention to complaints, saying: “If a man shuts his ears to the cry of the helpless, he will cry for help himself and not be heard.”​—Prov. 21:13, NE.

Do You Recall When You Were Little?

An important way to avoid getting exasperated at children is to remember what it was like when you were little. Instructive is the following experience related by a journalist and mother:

“One day a young man got on a bus with a child who was screaming and writhing in his arms. It was all he could do to hold on to her. As she wailed at the top of her lungs, he was well aware of the looks of annoyance on the faces of people on the bus. When he finally got seated, the young father kept a firm grip on the screaming mass of humanity in his arms and spoke to her in a low, steady voice. ‘Jenny, darling,’ he said, ‘I know just how you feel. You are so hungry and tired. It’s a scary feeling. You’re all mixed up about everything. You just can’t stop crying. I know you can’t help it. Let me rock you. I promise we’ll be home soon, and you can get into your bed and I’ll sing you to sleep. Yes, poor baby, I know you can’t stop crying.’”

What was the result of this father’s tender fellow feeling for his child? “After a few minutes, as the message of understanding seeped through the exhaustion, Jenny quieted down, sucked her thumb and fell asleep.” The observer concluded from this experience:

“If a parent tries to empathize with what the child is experiencing​—and acknowledges feeling the same way long ago—​it changes the whole situation. If you think your child is a spoiled brat who is trying to drive you out of your mind, then the wish to strike back becomes overwhelming. If, on the other hand, you think to yourself, ‘When a little kid gets tired the whole world falls apart​—and it must have been that way for me once, too,’ then nurturing beneficial to both parent and child can take place.”

Discipline Without ‘Irritation’

Does this suggest that physical punishment, such as spanking, is entirely out of place? Not at all. There are many occasions when that type of punishment is necessary. The Bible declares: “Do not hold back discipline from the mere boy. In case you beat him with the rod, he will not die. With the rod you yourself should beat him, that you may deliver his very soul from Sheol [the grave] itself.”​—Prov. 23:13, 14.

But physical punishment is not always necessary; nor is it effective with every child. And have you noticed that many parents carry physical punishment to extremes? They lose their temper and inflict hurt far beyond what is required for correction. Studies have shown that the overwhelming majority of child abusers are parents who overdiscipline.

The Scriptures warn against this. While encouraging parents to bring up their children “in the discipline and mental-regulating of Jehovah,” the apostle Paul warns: “Do not be irritating your children.” (Eph. 6:4) In another place Paul counseled: “You fathers, do not be exasperating your children.” (Col. 3:21) This would rule out brutal beatings or other physical torture, as well as badgering youngsters by continually screaming at them, belittling them or subjecting them to other psychological indignities. As a pattern of conduct pleasing to God the Bible points to the parent who “cherishes” and is “gentle” with the little ones.​—1 Thess. 2:7.

Help for Abusing Parents

Basic to overcoming child abuse is helping the parent. In an article entitled “It’s the Parent Who Needs Help,” Edward Edelson points out:

“In almost every case, the cure for child abuse is to give parents enough self-respect and dignity to achieve the deep friendships they lack. Most of these parents have lived in unspeakable loneliness, because they are afraid of being rejected by acquaintances in the same way they were rejected by their parents. Only this sort of friendship can make the parent see the child in the proper light​—not as a living toy designed to satisfy the parents’ needs, but as another human being with a life and demands of its own.”

To achieve vital personal relationships with other adults, some abusing parents have grouped together into organizations such as “Parents Anonymous” and “Mothers Anonymous.” They meet regularly to help to improve relationships between the parents and their children. In some areas there are emergency day-care centers where parents can drop off their children when matters become stressful. Is there a facility of that type in your area? A call to your family physician or local hospital or your consulting the telephone directory may put you in touch with persons who can help with the problem of child abuse.

But there is something even more effective than these secular services when it comes to developing meaningful human relations. What is that?

Guidance That Really Works

With regard to the written Word of God, the apostle Paul wrote: “All Scripture is inspired of God and beneficial . . . for setting things straight,” including injured relationships between parents and children. (2 Tim. 3:16) Let us consider some basic principles that produce such improved relations.

Persons who study child abuse say that abusing parents expect far more from their children than they can reasonably give. The Bible works for correcting such a selfish attitude, saying: “I tell everyone there among you not to think more of himself than it is necessary to think.” (Rom. 12:3) Adults will be inclined to heed that advice when they recognize the further Scriptural truth: “There is no man righteous in the earth that keeps doing good and does not sin.” (Eccl. 7:20) All have faults, adults as well as children; and when you think of it, are not the foibles of infants and toddlers less blameworthy than the unkind deeds (sometimes premeditated) of grown-ups?

True, there are times when children deliberately act ‘bratty’ and parents become justifiably annoyed. As noted above, discipline with the literal “rod” may become necessary. But never should parents lose self-control when administering discipline. They must keep in mind the Scriptural advice: “Continue putting up with one another and forgiving one another freely,” and this even when someone justly “has a cause for complaint against another.”​—Col. 3:13.

The Bible’s lofty standards for sexual morality constitute a further deterrent to child abuse. Children whose parents heed the Scriptural command, “Flee from fornication,” need not fear cruel treatment by visiting “boy friends” or “girl friends” of the parent with whom they live.​—1 Cor. 6:18.

The Joy of Interest in Others

The Word of God especially excels when it comes to the need for child-abusing parents to develop fruitful relationships with other adults. A principle that is sure to succeed is found at Philippians 2:3, 4: “[Do] nothing out of contentiousness or out of egotism, but with lowliness of mind considering that the others are superior to you, keeping an eye, not in personal interest upon just your own matters, but also in personal interest upon those of the others.”

But does that make sense? Is it practical to treat others as “superior” to yourself in today’s hostile world? Jesus Christ assured that, not only does it make sense, but it will cause persons to act toward you in the same unselfish way. “Practice giving, and people will give to you,” said Jesus. “For with the measure that you are measuring out, they will measure out to you in return.” (Luke 6:38) Why not try it and prove to yourself that the Son of God knew what he was talking about.

The Bible principles set out above really work when applied. Would you like to make them succeed for you? That will require regular association with others who are putting forth effort to improve relations with their fellowman, including their families. Where can you find such people?

Jehovah’s Witnesses gather at their Kingdom Halls for five weekly meetings. Frequently discussions at these meetings center around Bible principles for happy family life and how parents and children can truly enjoy being together. You are cordially invited to attend at the Kingdom Hall nearest to you. No collections of money are ever taken. Besides that, Jehovah’s Witnesses will be happy to conduct a free Bible study with you and your family, either in your home or at another convenient place. If you would enjoy that, simply contact the Witnesses at your local Kingdom Hall or write to the publishers of this magazine.

Good Conduct Unites a Family

Good Conduct Unites a Family

WHEN people begin changing their lives to bring them into harmony with God’s will, family members are at first not always favorably impressed. Eventually, however, they may come to appreciate the beneficial changes one has made and therefore themselves begin studying the Bible.

This was the experience of a man in the Republic of San Marino. His bad habits made a happy homelife impossible. Rather than spending time at home with his family he was often at a bar in the evening. Disturbed about his way of life, he prayed to God for help in shaking off his bad habits. Later, while visiting his mother one day, he learned that she was studying the Bible with Jehovah’s Witnesses. He began attending this study, but this only gave rise to family opposition_ His wife took no interest in what he was learning. She even threatened to leave him and take the children.

Then, one day, this man got into an argument with his father-in-law about family matters. His father-in-law got so angry that he struck his son-in-law with his fists. Even though the son-in-law knew that he was right, he did not retaliate. He forgave his father-in-law and harbored no resentment against him. Impressed by the conduct of her husband in this matter, the wife began to investigate the beliefs that her husband had accepted. She started attending the meetings of Jehovah’s Witnesses. Commenting on developments thereafter, the husband says: “I began a Bible study with my children and my wife, and it is a joy to see how she is making progress and how we are now a united family.”

A Journey to Ancient Corinth

A Journey to Ancient Corinth

“A RENOWNED and voluptuous city, where the vices of East and West met.” That was ancient Corinth. It has also been said that the city’s wealth “was so celebrated as to be proverbial.”

What kind of city would merit those descriptions? Could anyone profit from a “journey” to such a place? We shall see.

Corinth Becomes a Flourishing City

Ancient Corinth was situated on the narrow isthmus connecting the Peloponnesus and mainland Greece. To the east lay the Saronic Gulf and the Aegean Sea, and to the west the Gulf of Corinth and the Ionian Sea. The city was strategically located at the northern base of the Acrocorinth, a steep, rocky hill 1,857 feet (566 meters) above sea level.

Originally but a small town, Corinth was a flourishing city by the seventh century before the Common Era. Early settlers had included the Phoenicians, who may have introduced weaving, dyeing and other crafts. Next came the people of Attica, then the Dorians and eventually the Macedonians. The Romans freed the city in 196 B.C.E. As an independent city-state, Corinth joined the Achaean League, became involved in opposition to Rome, and was burned by Roman consul L. Mummius in 146 B.C.E. The city lay nearly desolate until founded as a Roman colony by Julius Caesar in 44 B.C.E. By the first century of the Common Era, it was the capital of the Roman province of Achaia and was ruled by a proconsul.

With some 200,000 free residents and perhaps more than twice that many slaves at the peak of its power, Corinth was indeed a bustling city. Among its residents were Greeks, some Italians and quite a number of Jews. But the streets were filled with many foreign merchants and travelers, visiting for business or pleasure.

“The Bridge of the Sea”

Overland trade routes passed through Corinth. Also, seagoing vessels brought goods to the city’s ports, Cenchreae, eight and a half miles (13.6 kilometers) to the east on the Saronic Gulf, and Lechaeum, on the Gulf of Corinth a mile and a half (2.4 kilometers) to the west. Some ships anchored at Schoenus, a small eastern port.

If the articles aboard ship were bound for points farther east or west, how could they be taken across the isthmus? Some men thought of constructing a canal. In fact, Roman Emperor Nero actually began such a project in about 66 or 67 C.E., only to abandon it to attend to more pressing matters elsewhere. Centuries were to pass before such a waterway was completed, in 1893. That four-mile (6.4-kilometer) canal linking the Gulf of Corinth and the Saronic Gulf is still in use.

But no canal existed on the isthmus during Corinth’s heyday. Large vessels were unloaded at one port and their cargoes transported overland to the other harbor. Then the goods were loaded onto another ship and sent to their destinations. However, smaller vessels were hauled across the isthmus with their goods aboard. This was accomplished by means of a shipway with rails of wood. The Greeks called it the diʹol·kos, meaning the “haul-across.” With good reason, then, the isthmus of Corinth was called “the bridge of the sea.” Most mariners were willing to cope with the problems of overland transport across the isthmus in preference to a 200-mile (322-kilometer) voyage around the peninsula’s storm-swept capes to the south.

“The Eye of All Greece”

Corinth also was a seat of learning. So true was this that the Roman orator, writer and statesman Cicero (106-43 B.C.E.) called the city totius Græciæ lumen, that is, “the eye of all Greece.”

True, a number of Corinth’s residents were well educated. Yet, many Corinthians engaged in activities that were morally corrupt. For that matter, the expression “to corinthianize” meant ‘to practice fornication,’ and a “Corinthian damsel” signified a harlot. Do you wonder what contributed to such moral laxity in this city termed “the eye of all Greece”?

False religion was a major factor. Consider, for instance, the worship of the goddess Aphrodite (the Roman Venus). Her resplendent sanctuary stood atop the Acrocorinth, towering some 1,500 feet (457 meters) above the city. “The temple of Venus,” wrote Bible commentator Adam Clarke, “was not only very splendid, but also very rich, and maintained, according to Strabo, not less than 1000 courtesans, who were the means of bringing an immense concourse of strangers to the place.”

But how could a visitor to Corinth ignore the impressive temple of Apollo? What about those sanctuaries built to such deities as Jupiter, Hera and Asklepios, the god of healing? Why, statues of heroes and gods lined Corinth’s streets and public squares! Moreover, Adam Clarke commented: “Public prostitution formed a considerable part of their religion; and they were accustomed in their public prayers, to request the gods to multiply their prostitutes!”

Christianity Makes Its Mark

Into such an environment came the Christian apostle Paul about the year 50 C.E. In Corinth, he made tents along with the Jew Aquila and his wife Priscilla. Doubtless all three also cooperated in building up the new Christian congregation in that city. Paul “would give a talk in the synagogue every sabbath and would persuade Jews and Greeks,” those Greeks evidently being proselytes to the Jews’ religion. Encountering Jewish opposition and verbal abuse, the apostle turned his attention to people of the nations and transferred to the house of Titius Justus, adjoining the synagogue. Paul’s preaching bore fruit as Crispus, the synagogue’s presiding officer, his household, and many persons became believers.​—Acts 18:1-8.

By night the Lord appeared to Paul in vision and said: “Have no fear, but keep on speaking and do not keep silent, because I am with you and no man will assault you so as to do you injury; for I have many people in this city.” So, the apostle remained in Corinth a year and a half, “teaching among them the word of God.” He thus planted “seed” in the Corinthian field. Some time after Paul, Aquila and Priscilla departed, Apollos “watered” that “seed” by further teaching. Of course, it was God who brought forth growth by means of His active force, the holy spirit.​—Acts 18:9-11, 18-28; 19:1; 1 Cor. 3:5-9.

Probably in 55-56 C.E., Paul spent three months in Greece, visiting Corinth and writing to Roman Christians from that city. (Acts 20:2, 3; Rom. 16:1, 23; 1 Cor. 1:14) That the apostle had love for his fellow believers in Corinth is evident from the two inspired letters he wrote to the congregation there. In the second of these, Paul made it clear that his heart had “widened out” in its affections to embrace the Christians of that renowned city. (1 Cor. 1:1, 2; 2 Cor. 1:1; 6:11) Moreover, those letters contained remarks that had special significance for Corinthians.

For instance, Corinth teemed with fornicators, idolaters, adulterers, homosexuals, thieves, greedy persons, drunkards, revilers and extortioners. Paul plainly said that such individuals would not inherit God’s kingdom. True, some Corinthian Christians had been persons of that sort. But, how thankful they were that, as Paul said, they had been ‘washed clean, sanctified, declared righteous in Jesus’ name and with the spirit of God’! (1 Cor. 6:9-11) Moreover, thought provoking was the apostle’s counsel to “be babes as to badness.” Obviously, that meant not seeking knowledge of corrupt, immoral things, but, rather, remaining as innocent as very young children regarding wickedness.​—1 Cor. 14:20.

A Walk Through Corinth

Ancient Corinth was built on two terraces, one about a hundred feet (30 meters) above the other. At the city’s center was the Agora, or marketplace, lined with monuments and colonnades. Opening into it were rows of shops that sold various items. On the doorstep of one shop appeared an inscription reading “Lucius, the butcher.” In another inscription was found the Latin term macellum. Paul used a form of its Greek equivalent maʹkel·lon in saying, “Everything that is sold in a meat market keep eating.” (1 Cor. 10:25) When Corinthian Christians heard those words, likely they thought of a local macellum or meat market.

Many of the Agora’s shops had provisions for fresh water. It flowed from a natural fountain through an underground channel into individual wells in each shop. Among other things, this apparently allowed proprietors to lower foods into the water, thus keeping them cool and helping to preserve perishables.

The Agora was in two levels, with shops situated along the line dividing the upper and lower sections. In the midst of these business places was the Bema or Rostra, an elevated platform of white and blue marble replete with decorative carvings. Alongside, on the lower level, were two waiting rooms with marble benches and mosaic floors. Here petitioners could await their turn to appear before a magistrate. Quite a crowd could gather before the Bema; so it was an excellent place for public speaking.

On one occasion, opposing Jews of Corinth rose up against the apostle Paul and took him to the “judgment seat” (Greek, Bema), thought to be the elevated platform just described. There Paul appeared before Proconsul Gallio, but this Roman ruler drove the Jews away, refusing to get involved in their controversies. At that, the persecutors seized Sosthenes, then the synagogue’s presiding officer, and beat him in front of the judgment seat. Possibly this experience led to Sosthenes’ embracing Christianity, for Paul, in opening his first inspired letter to the congregation in Corinth, mentions “Sosthenes our brother.”​—Acts 18:12-17; 1 Cor. 1:1, 2.

The Corinthian Christians must have been quite impressed when Paul told them by letter: “We must all be made manifest before the judgment seat [a form of the Greek word Bema] of the Christ.” (2 Cor. 5:10) They could walk into the marketplace and see the Bema, or judgment seat, where mere men rendered judgment. How much more significant to be judged by the glorified Jesus Christ!

Entertainment and Athletics

Theatrical productions were among the attractions of ancient Corinth. In fact, the city had two theaters, one large enough to seat 18,000 persons. Hence, Paul made a very understandable comment when he told Corinthian Christians that the apostles were “a theatrical spectacle to the world, and to angels, and to men.”​—1 Cor. 4:9.

Incidentally, near the large theater northwest of the Agora is a plaza paved with limestone blocks. One of these bears a Latin inscription reading, “Erastus, procurator and aedile, laid this pavement at his own expense.” It has been suggested that this Erastus was the same person as “Erastus the city steward” mentioned by Paul when writing to Roman Christians from Corinth.​—Rom. 16:23.

Corinth also attracted sports enthusiasts. Every two years, the Isthmian Games were held nearby. It is probable that these originated in honor of Poseidon (Neptune), for a temple to that false god was situated in the southern portion of the isthmus. The contests may have included competitions in music and poetry. But the games also featured such events as chariot racing, running, leaping, dart throwing, boxing and wrestling. What exertions were required of the athlete who sought to win! And what would he receive? The plaudits of men and perhaps a perishable crown.

A Race for Life?

In his first canonical letter to Corinthian Christians, the apostle Paul used the ancient games as an illustration, one that residents of that area could readily understand. “Do you not know that the runners in a race all run, but only one receives the prize?” asked Paul, continuing: “Run in such a way that you may attain it. Moreover, every man taking part in a contest exercises self-control in all things. Now they, of course, do it that they may get a corruptible crown [in the Isthmian Games, it might be of such perishable things as ivy, celery or parsley], but we an incorruptible one [immortal life in heaven].” Then, for their encouragement, Paul used himself as an example, saying: “Therefore, the way I am running is not uncertainly; the way I am directing my blows is so as not to be striking the air; but I pummel my body and lead it as a slave, that, after I have preached to others, I myself should not become disapproved somehow.”​—1 Cor. 9:24-27.

Like so many ancient cities, Corinth of old is in ruins today. Modern Corinth is situated three miles (4.8 kilometers) northeast of the former site. So, that “renowned and voluptuous city, where the vices of East and West met,” exists no more. Yet, those desiring to complete the Christian race for eternal life successfully will find the apostle Paul’s counsel in First and Second Corinthians to be encouraging, up-to-date and spiritually rewarding. Why not take your Bible in hand, read those divinely inspired letters, and thus complete your journey to ancient Corinth?

[Map on page 12]

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GREECE

ATHENS

CORINTH

PELOPONNESUS

Aegean Sea

Gulf of Corinth

Saronic Gulf

Mediterranean Sea

Our Atmospheric “Ocean”

Our Atmospheric “Ocean”

WHEN you stand by the seashore, you no doubt marvel at the ocean’s power, its restlessness, its vastness and depth. You may have wondered how the sea creatures feel, surrounded as they are by water. Thousands of feet down you can find crabs and other sea animals walking on the ocean floor. The tremendous pressure down there would crush a man, but the bodies of these animals are built to tolerate it.

However, have you ever viewed us humans as actually living, in an “ocean” of air? We do. It is far deeper​—more than fifty times the greatest depth in the seas. It is subject to more sudden changes in temperature, and is more restless than the watery oceans. Massive streams of air hundreds of kilometers wide and several kilometers deep move at altitudes of ten to twelve kilometers (about six to seven miles) above the earth’s surface. Known as “jet streams,” they blow at velocities as high as 500 kilometers (about 300 miles) per hour. Then, there are violent storms constantly raging in various layers of this “ocean” of air. We are familiar with the gigantic forces released in hurricanes and tornadoes. Also, about 44,000 awe-inspiring thunderstorms take place every day in this great and restless “sea” around us.

Air Has Substance and Weight

Air, though invisible, has substance. Because of this, our atmosphere exerts considerable pressure at earth’s surface​—of course, not as great as does the ocean, because air is not as heavy as water. However, air has weight, as is demonstrated by the fact that a helium-filled balloon rises. Helium being lighter than air, the air pushes it up, just as a bubble is pushed up in a glass of water. The average air pressure at sea level is about fifteen pounds (about seven kilograms) per square inch (6.5 square centimeters). At higher altitudes it becomes less dense, therefore lighter. But our “ocean” of air is so extensive that it weighs more than 5,000,000,000,000,000 (five quadrillion) tons.

This air weight means that, at sea level, there is a load of about a ton across your shoulders. But you do not notice it because pressure is pushing in equally on all sides of your body. To offset this outside compression the body maintains an internal pressure, just as the bodies of sea animals have an internal pressure to equalize the tremendous outside pressure from the water surrounding them. This internal pressure that humans have when “at home” in earth’s atmosphere makes it necessary for them to wear pressurized suits when they are “away from home” in space. Otherwise, in the near vacuum of outer space, lungs and blood vessels would be ruptured.

When you are in a strong wind you are convinced that air has substance. And any doubt as to this is certainly removed if you are in a laboratory and see it change into a liquid at about −310 degrees Fahrenheit (−190 degrees Celsius) and into a solid at about −436° F. (−260° C.).

We can, in effect, “see” air even in its normal gaseous state when heat differences cause it to act as a “lens.” The air concentrated densely at some points and thinly at others deforms the light rays so that we see mirages​—reflection and refraction of light from things sometimes miles away. The waves we see above a hot radiator give us a small sample of this phenomenon.

A valuable feature of air is its expansive property. Water, in its normal liquid form, will partially fill a container. But air molecules move much more freely and very fast, generally above the speed of sound. Therefore a very small volume of air expands so that it fills the container to its limits. Only the earth’s gravitation prevents the air from leaving and spreading out into empty space. When the size of the containing space is reduced, air molecules increase their speed and give resistance, creating pressure. This characteristic is highly useful. Liquids cannot be compressed appreciably, but compressors can “pack” a great quantity of air into a small container, so that as it is released it can operate pneumatic presses, drills, air lifts, and so forth.

Essential to Life in Many Ways

However, we are primarily concerned with air because of its importance to life on this planet. Air’s main constituent for life is oxygen, which comprises only 21 percent (by volume) of the atmosphere, that is, of the gases that appear in relatively constant proportions.

Oxygen combines readily with other elements or compounds to produce combustion. Thus, when a piece of wood burns, it is actually being rapidly oxidized. Our bodily warmth is maintained by the body’s metabolism in the oxidizing of nutrients. This process also provides energy for brain power, muscular energy, and so forth. That is one reason why the red blood corpuscles, the blood’s oxygen carriers, are so vital and why the brain cells, which use up about one fourth of the body’s total oxygen intake, need this element in constant supply. So active is oxygen that if it were not diluted with other gases in the atmosphere, fires would start at a mere spark and virtually everything would be in danger of being burned up. Besides, no human would live very long breathing only pure oxygen.

But for our very existence and safety the Creator diluted the atmosphere with nitrogen, which constitutes 78 percent of the ‘relatively constant’ gases making up the atmosphere. So we have just enough oxygen, and it is not too concentrated. In our atmospheric “ocean,” nitrogen and oxygen together make up as much as 99 percent of these relatively constant gases. Nitrogen, though, is more than a mere dilutant. It serves other purposes. During a thunderstorm, lightning allows nitrogen to combine with other elements. Then rain carries the resultant compounds to the earth for fertilizer. It is an essential element for many plants.

But even in the less than one percent of the other atmospheric gases we find gases that are either essential for life or that greatly contribute to our comfort. There are the five almost inert, so-called “noble” gases: argon, neon, helium, krypton and xenon. We are all acquainted with the use of argon and neon in lighting, helium in balloons and in many other applications. Methane, hydrogen and nitrous oxide are other atmospheric gases found in nearly constant concentration.

Water Vapor, Ozone, Dust​—Important Constituents

Aside from the gases that vary but little in quantity, there are other gases that are found in the atmosphere in different proportions according to time and place. Two of these are water vapor, from zero up to as much as 7 percent (by volume), and carbon dioxide, between .01 percent and one percent. Plants absorb carbon dioxide and give off oxygen. Without carbon dioxide, plant life would die. Ozone, a form or an “allotrope” of oxygen, is also there in small quantities, constituting only about .01 percent of the atmosphere. It is found mainly between ten and fifty kilometers (six to thirty miles) up, and provides a shield from the deadly ultraviolet rays. Who but an all-wise, all-powerful Creator could have made such an atmosphere for the benefit of all living things on earth, with constituents in the right proportions for the utmost safety, comfort and well-being of all?

Water vapor, as a gas in the atmosphere, is the source of rain, mist, snow, sleet and hail. It forms a large proportion of the clouds. Water vapor is produced by the sun’s evaporation of water from the seas and lakes, and from foliage. Without this cycle of rain and evaporation plant life would soon die off the earth. The Bible speaks of this cycle as designed by God.​—Isa. 55:10, 11.

Besides minute percentages of the gases sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide, there are solid particles such as dust, soot from smoke, salt from the oceans, pollen, microbes, and ashes of meteors that burn up as they pass through the atmosphere. Dust, except where it is excessive, cannot be called “pollution,” for dust particles are important in forming the nucleus of raindrops and have to do with the sky’s beautiful blue coloring and the rich red of the sunsets. Except, perhaps, for the discomfort to hay-fever sufferers, plant pollen distributed by air currents serves a beneficial purpose also.

Temperatures in the Atmosphere’s “Ocean”

Most of the things discussed have to do with the layer of air we live in​—the troposphere. As is common knowledge, the temperature drops with an increase in altitude. However, after reaching a low of about −67° F. (−55° C.) at the top of the troposphere the temperature rises through the stratosphere (where the jet streams are found) to about 28° F. (−2° C.) and drops again toward the top of the next layer (the mesosphere) to −135° F. (c. −93° C.). The temperature in the next layer, the thermosphere, rises, at the height of about 280 miles (450 kilometers), to an amazing 2,700° F. (nearly 1,500° C.)!

The ionosphere is not one of the regular atmospheric “layers,” but is the region (that includes several “layers”) in which the air molecules are electrically charged by radiation from the sun. Its lower boundary is about thirty-four miles (55 kilometers) above the earth and reaches several thousand miles into very, very thin atmosphere. In the ionosphere the beautiful aurora borealis or “northern lights” (and the aurora australis in the southern hemisphere) occur.

In the ionosphere charged air particles “ionized” by radiation from the sun and from outer space create a radio-wave “ceiling.” This makes possible radio transmission over a distance of thousands of miles. Radio waves travel in straight lines and would reach only a limited area, because the earth curves away from under them and they go straight toward outer space. But the radio ceiling “bounces” them back at an angle to a faraway point on earth. Satellites are now used similarly.

By the use of satellites and more refined instruments, a much better understanding of our “ocean” of air has resulted. Much more is known about its currents, temperatures, and so forth. Weather forecasting is consequently becoming more and more accurate. But there is yet much that man has to learn about the atmosphere, which extends, though in a very attenuated state, several earth radii (one earth radius = 3,960 miles [6,372 kilometers]) into space. Many of its mysteries are as hidden as ever, and new ones spring up as space exploration expands.

[Diagram on page 17]

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The ionosphoro is a region of electrically charged particles, which begins in the lower mesosphere and extends far beyond the thermosphere

280 MILES +2700° F.

THERMOSPHERE

50 MILES −135° F.

MESOSPHERE

30 MILES +28° F.

STRATOSPHERE

10 MILES −67°F

TROPOSPHERE

EARTH

[Picture on page 18]

A lightning storm prepares nitrogen compounds essential to plant life

A Look at the ‘Lord Mayor’s Turtle’

A Look at the ‘Lord Mayor’s Turtle’

By “Awake!” correspondent in Costa Rica

WHAT do you know of the ‘Lord Mayor’s Turtle’? Actually, there is no species of turtle officially called that. But in England the Lord Mayor’s banquet traditionally began with a bowl of green-turtle soup, so that name was applied to the Caribbean green turtle.

Perhaps you have tasted turtle soup, made with the gelatinous calipee found under the shell of green sea turtles. In West Germany, the United States and other affluent parts of the world it is considered a delicacy. But being the source of a delicacy as well as offering a supply of meat rich in protein has led to the green turtle’s being threatened with extinction. Come along and consider close up the interesting lives of these creatures. Here in Costa Rica you have an unusual opportunity to do so.

For centuries the green turtle’s eggs and succulent flesh were sought as food. But with the arrival of the Spanish in the Americas the hunting by man of this large amphibious reptile began on a wide scale. According to an authority on sea turtles, zoologist Archie Carr, “more than any other dietary factor, the green turtle supported the opening up of the Caribbean.” It is said that during the first century after the invasion of the Spanish more than 75 percent of the breeding colonies were destroyed. Now Costa Rica possesses the only large remaining spawning site in the Caribbean.

Until recently in Costa Rica the turtles were hunted indiscriminately. Then the government, aware of the dangers of extinction, passed laws prohibiting the hunting of turtles or their eggs on the beaches. This was not the first attempt to stop their wanton destruction. As far back as 1620 the Bermuda Assembly passed a law to protect “so excellent a fische.” This law prohibited the killing of small turtles on or near the shores of those islands. Offenders were punished by a fine of fifteen pounds (5.8 kilos) of tobacco, half of which was for public use and the other half for the informer.

Visiting Tortuguero

The green turtle (Chelonia mydas) uses as its breeding and nesting ground a twenty-mile (32-kilometer) stretch of beach on the Atlantic coast of Costa Rica, called Tortuguero. During the months of July to October, green turtles from all over the Caribbean converge on this lonely stretch of beach to go through their mating rites. The actual mating is done offshore and is very seldom witnessed by man. After that the females are obliged to risk their lives in order to deposit their eggs in the warm sand, which serves as an incubator. At two-week intervals a female may go through this dangerous mission up to seven times during the mating season.

I decided that I could best describe the scene if I went to see it for myself. I arrived at Tortuguero beach by launch just as it was getting dark. With the aid of a flashlight I was able to pick my way through the branches of trees and other obstacles that were strewn about by the surf. After walking for about fifteen minutes I came across two parallel tracks about two feet (.6 meter) apart. My heart leaped. Could this be the trail of a turtle in search of a nesting place? I decided to follow the tracks and, sure enough, they led to a turtle half hidden in the sand. She certainly was large, but I should have anticipated that, for a mature green turtle can weigh up to 250 pounds (113 kilos).

I found, though, that we had company. Three policemen armed with rifles were standing guard against poachers. When I told them that I only wanted to take pictures, they were very cooperative. The sound of voices and the light from the flashlights and the camera did not interrupt the turtle as she silently occupied herself with digging a suitable hole. Alternately she sank her flippers into the sand, curled them up and with a swift movement threw the sand clear of the hole.

When unable to reach any deeper she began to deposit her eggs. They fell like ping-pong balls, two or three at a time, into the nest. After laying about a hundred eggs she went about the task of filling in the hole and covering up her tracks with different movements of her flippers. We observers certainly were intrigued.

By this time some small boys from the village had arrived on the scene. They aid the authorities in their conservation program, being paid three colones (about 35 cents) for every turtle they turn upside down. This does not harm the turtles and in the morning they are marked with a metal tag before being released into the sea. These tags help to trace the turtles’ migratory routes and feeding grounds. That night I saw about eight turtles in different stages of the egg-laying process.

Dangers Ahead

A hundred eggs may seem quite a lot for one sitting. But probably fewer than one in a thousand young turtles survive. If the sand happens to be too wet or too dry, the eggs may be attacked by fungi or bacteria. Egg poachers are also a constant menace, as the eggs are a favorite boca or appetizer and are served with the drinks in the local bars.

The incubation period lasts about two months. Then the tiny creatures begin using their sharp beaks to break free from their shells. The next task is to reach the surface. This calls for much teamwork. So those that hatch first wait until all their brothers and sisters are hatched and their shells have hardened. In an experiment twenty-two eggs were buried separately. Of these only six baby turtles made it to the surface.

But how do groups of a hundred or more manage to reach the surface? As the young turtles emerge from their eggs the available space in the nest increases. The space occupied by the hatchlings and the crumpled egg shells is less than that filled by the eggs themselves. When all have hatched and conditions are just right, the young turtles begin thrashing with their tiny flippers. Those on the top break down the ceiling, those on the sides undercut the walls and those underneath compact the fallen sand onto the floor. In this way they all rise to the surface en masse. The small creatures, weighing only about three ounces (85 grams), must now make a dash for the sea. Instinctively their tiny legs begin to carry them as fast as possible toward the ocean that they have never seen. Overhead, black vultures may be waiting to swoop down and gobble them up. Dogs and other animals also take their toll. Thus, even though the surf may be just a few minutes away, not all the turtles reach it. If a baby turtle can survive this dangerous period, it may live more than one hundred years.

Very little is known about what happens to the baby turtles after they enter the ocean. When young hatchlings are released into tanks in captivity they usually swim for about ten days without even stopping to eat. So in the ocean they could be hundreds of miles from the shore by that time. After about six years of ocean life the females will return to the same beach to reenact the egg-laying scene performed by their mothers.

Their Navigational Ability

…