Awake!, August 8, 1975

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Awake! — August 8, 1975

Source: jw.org

Contents

Fortune-telling—Can It Really Help You?

I Chose to Run in the Race for Life

Your Clothing—How to Keep It as Good as New

Putting Nutrients Back into the Soil

Can You Get By for Less?

What About Salt?

Business in Narrow Waters

Why the Rise in Suicide?

Hope Gives One Reasons to Live

What Is the Soul?

Watching the World

Have You Read the Oldest Written History of Man?

A Thousand Years of Peace

Fortune-telling—Can It Really Help You?

“I READ your life like an open book.” “I answer all questions.” “Bring your problems to me and I will solve them—no matter what your problems may be.”

These claims were made by a fortune-teller in a leaflet advertising her services.

Many people take such claims seriously. Throughout the world fortune-tellers enjoy a flourishing business. Some individuals visit one every day and will not make any big decision without such a consultation.

What is fortune-telling? Can it really answer vital questions and solve problems? Can fortune-telling help you?

Methods of Fortune-telling

Fortune-telling, according to The Encyclopedia Americana, involves “predicting one’s fortune or future, by alleged signs or indications seen and interpreted by amateur or professional diviners.”

Fortune-telling is, therefore, a form of divination, a procedure for gaining knowledge of the unknown or of the future by extraordinary means. That is why the names of many of its methods end in -mancy (from the Greek man·teiʹa: “the mode of divination”). There are, for example, cartomancy (fortune-telling by cards), chiromancy (by the lines of one’s hand) and crystallomancy (by use of a crystal ball or other transparent object).

Many methods of fortune-telling involve looking for and interpreting omens or signs that supposedly foreshadow future events. Astrology is in this category. The sun, moon, stars and planets are said to affect earthly and human events. Each star group and each planet is assumed to exert a particular influence, positive or negative. Astrologers cast a “horoscope” or chart of the positions of the heavenly bodies relative to one another at the time of a person’s birth. From this they claim to be able to read his personality and destiny.

Palmistry is a way of fortune-telling by examining the lines and other characteristics of the palm of someone’s hand. Showing a close connection with astrology, palmists speak of the hand as having “mounts,” named after the seven planets known to ancient astrologers.

Some fortune-tellers work with Tarot cards. These special cards include 22 “Tarots” (or trumps) and 56 numeral cards. The numeral cards are divided into four suits. Each suit is given an overall sense and each card is given a specific meaning. The cards are interpreted according to their assigned meanings, modified by the combination of one card with another when dealt, drawn or spread out.

Tarot reading, too, is connected with astrology. The book How the Tarot Speaks to Modern Man explains that Tarot readers “base their interpretation of the cards upon the structure of the universe, particularly the solar system as symbolized by the Holy Cabala.” The “Cabala” (a body of Jewish occult doctrine) divides up the universe into three elements (fire, air and water), seven planets and the twelve signs of the zodiac—22 in all, corresponding with the 22 trump cards of the Tarot deck.

There are many other methods of fortune-telling by omens, including the way tea leaves settle at the bottom of a cup, the configurations of drops of oil on the surface of water and the fall of dice or dominoes.

A Scientific Basis?

Does such a quest to know someone’s personality traits or the future by omens have a scientific basis? Evidence for this is entirely lacking. Says the book The Biological and Social Meaning of Race: “The possible number of different combinations of genes that a single human could inherit is greater than the number of atoms in the universe.” An individual’s traits, his way of thinking and the decisions that govern his future also involve his environment and culture.

Could there be any significant correspondence between someone’s personality or future and the fall of a pair of dice (which presents only 36 possibilities), the settling of tea leaves or any other random occurrence? And the fact that personalities are largely determined by heredity at the time of conception rules out any “influence” from heavenly bodies at the time of one’s birth.

Another problem: Because of “precession of the equinoxes,” which is caused by a slight “wobble” of the earth as it rotates on its axis, the sun now crosses the equator each spring in the constellation called Pisces instead of Aries. This puts traditional astrology charts that give dates for the sun to pass through the twelve constellations of the zodiac a full section out of alignment.

“The inference from this is clear,” remarks Christopher McIntosh in The Astrologers and Their Creed. “Either the astrological tradition became obsolete as soon as the precession began to affect the alignment of signs and constellations, or else the qualities attributed to the signs are not connected with the stars at all.”a

Of course, other methods of fortune-telling that are related to astrology (such as certain types of card reading and palmistry) are equally devoid of scientific basis. That is why the predictions of fortune-tellers are so often wrong.

“But they are not always wrong,” someone may object. This is true. On occasion, some fortune-tellers have been amazingly accurate. But if their methods are not scientific, what accounts for this accuracy?

A Mysterious Force

Here it is interesting to note an expression of the well-known fortune-teller Jeanne Dixon, who sometimes uses a pack of cards to tell fortunes: “I don’t know a single thing about telling fortunes with cards. I simply have a person hold them so that I can pick up his vibrations.” Similarly, the book Patterns of Prophecy (1973) says concerning palm reading: “Palmists seem to derive their most astute impressions not from the lines of the hand, but from touching the person to make psychic contact. . . . a number of German palmists were unable to make accurate statements about people’s characters when only photocopies of the handprints were presented to them.”

Thus it is not the heavenly bodies, the cards, someone’s palm or any other omens that result in the occasional “direct hits” of fortune-tellers. Their successes are principally due to a mysterious “psychic force.”

Such a strange power is involved in several other methods of probing into the unknown or the future. An example is cleidomancy, or divination by a key held suspended on a thread. When asked questions, the key may revolve or move back and forth to indicate “Yes” or “No” answers or to provide other types of information. Some substitute another object, such as a pendulum, in place of a key. At times such devices, when held over a map, have pointed out the location of hidden or lost objects and missing persons. When dangled above letters of the alphabet laid out in a circle, the pendulum has been known to move toward certain ones in succession to spell out a message.

Similar is the Ouija board, which contains the words “Yes,” “No,” “Good-bye,” the letters of the alphabet and the numbers 1 through 9 and 0. Atop this sits a heart-shaped device mounted on three felt-tipped legs. When consultants put their hands on this, a force causes it to move about the board, spelling out words and sentences that can provide information not previously known to the persons using the board.

The same principle operates in the case of the planchette, which is a triangular or heart-shaped board mounted on tiny wheels with a pencil projected downward. One or more persons place their fingertips on the board and a mysterious power causes it to write.

What is the force that enables fortune-tellers to make correct forecasts on occasion or to obtain accurate information that they could not normally know? What makes the pendulum, the planchette and the three-legged device atop a Ouija board move about in a way that communicates information not obtainable by normal means? What engenders visions in crystal balls that at times accurately describe the unknown or the future? Obviously there is an intelligently directed force at work. Scientists and psychic researchers are not sure what that force is. Would it benefit you to explore such a mysterious power? Would it help you to “try it just once” to satisfy your curiosity?

The Real Power Behind Fortune-telling

The Bible warns all who wish to win the approval of God to keep away from such a thing. God’s view of the matter is set forth at Isaiah 1:13: “I cannot put up with the use of uncanny power along with the solemn assembly [for worship].” Commenting on the Hebrew word aʹwen, here rendered “uncanny power,” Johannes Pedersen, a professor of Semitic languages, writes:

“Properly speaking it denotes strength, but gradually it has chiefly come to be used of the false strength, the magic power, and therefore it has all the characteristics of sin.” “[It] denotes the false strength, deeds involving disaster, witchcraft and magic arts.”—Israel: Its Life and Culture, pp. 431, 448.

Other scriptures associate “uncanny power” with divination, which includes fortune-telling. (1 Sam. 15:23; Num. 23:16-18, 21; Josh. 13:22) Persons desiring to worship God acceptably must shun any involvement with such a force, for it does not originate with God. Where, then, does it come from?

Pointing to the real source of much fortune-telling ability, the Bible, at Acts 16:16-18, relates:

“We met a slave girl who had a clairvoyant spirit. She used to bring substantial profit to her masters by fortune-telling. The girl began to follow Paul and the rest of us . . . She did this for several days until finally Paul became annoyed, turned around, and said to the spirit, ‘In the name of Jesus Christ I command you, come out of her!’”—The New American Bible.

After the apostle Paul had expelled the “clairvoyant spirit,” or demon, from this girl, her masters “saw that their source of profit was gone.” (Acts 16:19, NAB) She had lost her fortune-telling ability.

It is clear from this that the Word of God links up the uncanny power behind fortune-telling with wicked spirit forces, or superhuman, invisible demons. (Eph. 6:12) That is why God commanded his people to shun every type of divination, saying:

“There should not be found in you anyone who . . . employs divination, a practicer of magic or anyone who looks for omens or a sorcerer, or one who binds others with a spell or anyone who consults a spirit medium or a professional foreteller of events or anyone who inquires of the dead. For everybody doing these things is something detestable to Jehovah.”—Deut. 18:10-12.

All forms of divination, whether by interpretation of omens or by some other use of psychic power, are covered by that prohibition.

Can It Help You?

Do you think that something that God directly condemns in his inspired Word could help you? Actually, fortune-telling could do considerable harm. How so?

One reason is given in The World Book Encyclopedia: “Such a belief may rob a person of trust in himself and his own ability. He may begin to look on himself as a ‘pawn of fortune’ who cannot change his fate. He then may lose ambition.”

More importantly, since fortune-telling involves the use of “uncanny power,” which God condemns, it brings His disfavor, making a person “detestable to Jehovah,” preventing him from having an acceptable relationship with God. (Deut. 18:12) Moreover, the Bible associates prediction of the future by fortune-tellers with the influence of demons. Dabbling in fortune-telling can open up one to harassment from the invisible realm.

No genuine good, therefore, can come from seeking the guidance of fortune-tellers or reading literature designed to help people to develop psychic powers. Christians do well to follow the example of persons of the first century C.E. whom the Lord Jesus Christ favored because they “did not get to know the ‘deep things of Satan.’”—Rev. 2:24.

For those who may already be involved in practices like fortune-telling, the Bible contains the following helpful example: “Many of those who had become believers would come and confess and report their practices openly. Indeed, quite a number of those who practiced magical arts brought their books together and burned them up before everybody.” (Acts 19:18, 19) People who became Christians made a clean break from such practices.

Fortune-tellers with their psychic abilities cannot help you to know God and his requirements for acceptable worship. Nor can they provide sound guidance for everyday life and a sure hope for the future. That information is found only in the Holy Bible, which is truly “inspired of God.” (2 Tim. 3:16; Ps. 119:105; Isa. 46:10) It is study of the Word of God, therefore, and not the consulting of fortune-tellers, that will truly help you in your life.

[Footnotes]

For a fuller discussion of astrology, see the November 22, 1973, issue of Awake!, pages 3-7.

I Chose to Run in the Race for Life

I WAS born in a small town in Eritrea, Africa, in 1947. When my mother died two years later, I was entrusted to the care of my grandfather, a priest of the Orthodox Church.

As I grew older, religion became my principal interest. I, too, desired to become a priest. So grandfather placed me in a school to prepare me.

Often I prayed to God to help me to reach my goal of becoming a priest. I asked for a sign to indicate that my prayers were heard. When I did not receive any, I became disappointed. In time I came to feel that God did not exist.

So in 1960 I decided to leave school. After four days of traveling on foot, I arrived at home. You can imagine my grandfather’s reaction. However, I remained firm in my decision not to continue my studies for the priesthood. My attention turned elsewhere.

Career as a Cyclist

I found work as a bicycle mechanic. This led to an interest in cycling. Could I become a champion cyclist? This became my desire. Yet I could not even enter a race, because I did not have a bicycle, nor did I have enough money to buy one. So I determined to build one myself.

With the bicycle built with my own hands, I entered my first race. I did not win. However, I did so well that the trainers of a squad of cyclists who saw me presented me with a bicycle so that I might enter the next race on the program. Shortly afterward I took part in a race at Asmara, the capital of Eritrea, and won.

For four years I raced in Eritrea, benefiting from the help of an Italian trainer. I went on from one victory to another, winning a total of forty cups and ten medals. It was at this time that they began calling me “Giant,” partly because of my stature and partly for my victories. I was known by this nickname more so than by my real name.

My reputation became known abroad, and I was invited to take part in bicycle races in Italy, Spain, France, Yugoslavia, Germany and Mexico. I won many of them. In Italy alone I won thirty cups and twenty medals.

Although I had become one of the fastest cyclists in the world, something was wrong. I did not feel satisfied or happy. Something had changed in me. I was losing interest in sports. I had begun to appreciate that there was something much more important than bicycle racing.

Then the opportunity that I had awaited for years finally arrived—the Pan African games, a kind of African Olympics. They were scheduled for January 1973 in Lagos, Nigeria. It had been my cherished dream to participate in such high-level international competition. But, strange as it may seem, now I did not really want to go.

However, the Ethiopian government sent me ten telegrams inviting me to represent Ethiopia in the games. Finally I decided to go, but I was determined to quit sports after these games were over. I was very successful in the competition, winning two gold medals, one in a regular bicycle race between individual contestants, and the other in a timed race. But then I made clear my determination to quit racing altogether.

The news of my quitting quickly reached the then emperor of Ethiopia, Haile Selassie. On hearing it, he summoned me to appear before him as soon as I returned from Lagos late in January. Our conversation lasted about half an hour. He tried to convince me to continue racing so as to maintain high the name of Ethiopia. He promised me land and riches. He also offered me the opportunity to become a trainer of cyclists. I refused.

What, you may wonder, had influenced my decision? Why had I lost my consuming interest in cycling?

A More Important Race

It is because I had come to appreciate that another kind of race is more satisfying and rewarding than bicycle competition. When I left my studies for the priesthood back in 1960, a relative in Asmara first spoke to me about the Bible promises of a new system of righteousness of God’s making. (2 Pet. 3:13) At the time this information did not particularly impress me, since at school I had become disappointed with religion. Besides, by then I was deeply interested in bicycle racing.

However, about ten years later I accepted an invitation to study the Bible with one of Jehovah’s witnesses in Ethiopia. I also began attending some of their Christian meetings. Later, when I traveled to Italy to participate in bicycle races, I contacted a congregation of Jehovah’s witnesses. Thus I continued my meeting attendance and Bible study, this time with ever-increasing interest.

I became impressed by the fact that Almighty God really does purpose to create a new system, and that He is now preparing a people who will survive to enjoy its blessings when He brings this old world to an end. (1 John 2:17) I began to see the importance of living for that new system now, making it my goal in life and telling others about it. Since I was deeply involved in racing, these words of the Christian apostle Paul at 1 Corinthians 9:24-27 particularly impressed me:

“Do you not know that the runners in a race all run, but only one receives the prize? Run in such a way that you may attain it. Moreover, every man taking part in a contest exercises self-control in all things. Now they, of course, do it that they may get a corruptible crown, but we an incorruptible one. Therefore, the way I am running is not uncertainly . . . that, after I have preached to others, I myself should not become disapproved somehow.”

In a certain sense I saw myself described by these words of Paul. But I was in the wrong race! I had been racing for a prize of little value—worldly fame and riches. Now I realized that it was possible to run the Christian race for the prize of eternal life.

Thus, when the Pan African games were over, I began sharing publicly in preaching to others regarding God’s purpose to usher in a new system of righteousness. I remember the exact date when I began to preach; it was February 1, 1973, about fifteen days after my two victories in the Pan African games.

What joy I find now in using my physical strength—not in racing for some fading, corruptible prize—but in running in the race for the prize of eternal life that Jehovah God will give to all those who continue loving him. (Jas. 1:12)—Contributed.

Your Clothing—How to Keep It as Good as New

WHAT has no mouth but “talks” about you all the time? Your clothes! Yes, your wardrobe reflects your attitude toward yourself, your family and even your employment. And, to a great extent, it is not money that makes it possible to be well dressed; it is knowing how to care for your garments.

Besides your appearance, there is another reason for caring for your attire—clothing is getting more expensive. Since you may buy fewer new clothes, it becomes more important to keep your present wardrobe in good condition.

But how do some people manage to look so fresh and neat while others look so crumpled? What does the properly attired person do to keep his or her clothing as good as new?

Daily Care

The secret to proper clothing care is daily concern—cultivating good habits in handling your clothes. Probably the most important is the regular use of clothes hangers. Clothes thrown in a pile get wrinkled and do not receive needed air. Apparel hung on a hook or a nail often stretches.

So, do not only use a hanger, take a moment more to see that the item hangs straight, and then fasten the top button or snap. If your clothes-closet rod is so crowded that nothing can hang straight, then make adjustments. Perhaps another rod can be installed.

After you place a jacket, coat or other heavy garment on a hanger, it might be beneficial to give it a quick brushing with a clothes brush or a whisk broom, especially around the collar. Also, occasionally brush inside cuffs and pockets. Dirt brushed out cannot become embedded, and so regular brushing will add to the life-span of most apparel.

A notable exception to the hang-it-up habit is sweaters and some other single-knit garments. If hung, they tend to stretch. So, after wearing a sweater, it is best to turn it wrong side out, lay it by an open window and air it for a few minutes. Then turn it right side out and fold it neatly and put it in a drawer.

Of course, proper storage will not solve the calamities that may befall you while wearing a garment. Have you ever been “attacked” by spaghetti sauce? Or have you had chocolate ice cream skip merrily down the front of your new white dress?

Yes, stains can be a real obstacle to keeping your clothing like new. Stain removal is really included in daily clothing care, because the best time to tackle a stain is immediately—if possible, before it dries.

To remove a stain you need to know how to remove the particular kind of stain from the kind of material that is involved. With this article are directions on removing some common stains from most fabrics. Before applying anything else, try cool water; it will not set the stain. (Many nonwashable fabrics are not damaged by small amounts of water.) When treating a stain, it is best to use light strokes.

If you must use a solvent of any kind, use as little as possible. Do not breathe the fumes, and keep the bottle beyond the reach of children. Too, before applying a solvent or a chemical remover to a colored fabric, test the remover by dabbing some on an inside seam to see if it fades the color.

Weekly and Seasonal Care

Clothing needs a regular program of maintenance to remove dirt and wrinkles. How often your clothes need to be washed depends on how frequently each garment is worn. But most families find a weekly laundry time necessary. Read the labels carefully so you will know how to handle each article. You find it best to separate dirty clothes into three groups—those requiring dry cleaning, those requiring washing and ironing, and those requiring only washing (such as “permanent press” garments).

When gathering garments to take to the dry cleaner, inspect them for frays, missing buttons and small tears. Either repair them then or make a note so that you remember to fix them later. Further, says Margret Hanson in The Care We Give Our Clothes: “If there are any stains, write on a piece of paper the cause of each stain. Pin the notes to the stains with safety pins. If you do this, your dry cleaner will know how to remove each stain.”

As for those clothes you wash, whether by machine or by hand, it is first necessary to remove any stains. In addition, it is good to keep in mind that clothes will last longer if you strive to keep their fiber strength. Two tips on that: When hand-washing, treat the garment gently and do not wring or twist it too much. Secondly, rinse everything thoroughly so that you remove all traces of soap or detergent.

Some items that you may think of as needing dry cleaning can actually be washed at home if you are careful. For example, take a wool sweater that needs cleaning and spread it out on a clean piece of paper (not newsprint). Quickly trace the shape of the sweater on the paper. You can then wash the sweater in cold water with special cold-water soap or in soft, lukewarm water and mild suds. After rinsing it two or three times in water of the same temperature, gently squeeze out the moisture. Then roll it in a towel, to absorb more water. Now shape the sweater to your drawn outline and leave it on the paper to dry in a place away from heat and sunlight.

Of course, even if your clothes are clean you do not look well dressed if they are wrinkled. Many garments require ironing after each washing. Other garments, however, need frequent pressing. If you do this yourself instead of sending them to the dry cleaner, you will save considerable expense. Pressing differs from ironing in that the iron is lifted up and “pressed” down on the fabric instead of being slid across it. This is usually done on the underside of a garment but may be done on the “right” side if a pressing cloth is used.

Seasonal care of your clothes is mainly a matter of proper storage so that when you want them again they are in usable condition. The key is: (1) A dry, clean storage place and (2) all garments cleaned before storing. You see, moths prefer dirty wool, and mildew (a tiny plant) likes damp, warm places. Also, it is better not to starch clothes before storing, as starched clothes will mildew faster than those that are not. If it is not possible to dry-clean certain garments that you are storing, the next-best thing is to air them thoroughly and brush them inside and out. By doing this you may brush the moth eggs or larvae away. Store your clothes, whenever possible, in airtight boxes, bags, drawers or chests.

But, someone may reason, ‘Even if I do all of this, clothes tear; they get old and wear out eventually.’ This is true, but do not be hasty about throwing away a damaged garment or an old one.

Repair and Remodeling

Anyone, including bachelors, can learn to make simple clothing repairs. If you stop a small rip from tearing farther, you may save an expensive garment. There are books at many libraries on patching and reweaving fabrics. And, as with any job, you need the right tools—so keep a box or basket of mending equipment. Always include a supply of extra buttons; a safety pin where a button is obviously supposed to be will certainly not be attractive.

But what about a bad rip or an ugly stain that will not come out? Here is where your imagination can be tested. Especially with women’s clothing is it relatively easy, for example, to sew a series of cloth triangles or other designs down the front of a dress. And one of those triangles can go right over that rip or stain!

Similarly, it is often the collar of a garment that first becomes worn or soiled. Why not remove it and either cut a different collar design for the garment or make a new collar from a complementary fabric. You thus eliminate the problem and at the same time give the outfit a new look.

Once you study the possibilities, the variations are endless. Long-sleeved shirts can become short-sleeved shirts. An old dress can be turned into a skirt or a jumper. A dress with a bad stain on the skirt can be cut off and made into a blouse. Never underestimate what new accessories—such as a scarf, belt or decorative pin—can do for a not-so-new garment. Viewing it as a creative challenge, and daring to experiment, you may find that you are happier with the “remodel” than you were with the original!

When reviewing your wardrobe, note which fabrics have kept that good-as-new look the longest. Then, when shopping, buy with an eye to durability.

Moreover, while it is not wise to become overly anxious about what to wear, remember that often, before you open your mouth to speak, your clothes have “spoken.” A neatly attired person will usually find greater respect and consideration from others—all the more reason to care for your clothing.

[Chart on page 11]

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REMOVING COMMON STAINS

Type Washable Fabrics Nonwashable Fabrics

BLOOD Soak in cool to lukewarm water Sponge with cool water.

Wash with detergent. Rinse. If If stain remains, apply

necessary, put a few drops of detergent and rinse

ammonia on stain and wash spot.

again.

CHEWING GUM

Chill with ice cube; peel Same procedure, except

gum off. If stain remains, wrap ice cube in wax

sponge with dry-cleaning paper or plastic.

solvent (perchloro-ethylene).

CHOCOLATE Treat with cool to lukewarm Same procedure.

water. If stain has dried,

sponge spot with lukewarm

water and a mild detergent.

COFFEE OR TEA

Soak in cool water. Then soak Sponge with cool water.

in warm water and wash with Apply detergent. Rinse

detergent. Rinse. spot. If cream was in

coffee or tea, use

dry-cleaning solvent.

INK (ball-point),

GREASE, LIPSTICK

(and most cosmetics)

After pouring dry-cleaning Sponge carefully with

on stain, use a cloth to dry-cleaning solvent,

absorb as much stain as using a cloth to absorb

possible. Allow solvent to as much stain as

evaporate, then sponge with possible.

liquid detergent. Rinse well.

PAINT (oil-based),

VARNISH For fresh stains, rub in Sponge with turpentine

detergent and wash. For (if safe for fabric) or

dry stains, sponge with sponge with dry-cleaning

turpentine or paint thinner solvent.

and, while stain is wet, rub

detergent into it. Then soak

it overnight in hot water.

Wash again.

Putting Nutrients Back into the Soil

DO YOU live in a food-growing area? If so, desert and famine conditions may seem like hundreds, even thousands, of miles distant. But that is not true.

Really, food shortage is no more than inches away from any place on earth.

It is only as far removed as the depth of the soil. Should a few vital inches of topsoil be removed from the earth, all life on it would eventually end.

Actual soil erosion is stealing much precious topsoil earth wide. For instance, African nations admit that soil erosion is a major problem. Says the Ethiopian Herald: “Tons after tons of earth are washed away every day from our highlands to neighboring countries so that our fields are gradually becoming sterile. With low fertility they can provide only low yields.”

But soil effectiveness can be crippled in another way: Nutrients can be taken from it and not be replaced, thereby greatly diminishing its ability to grow crops. To understand how this can happen requires that we first of all understand the makeup of soil.

What Is Soil?

Soil is, according to one simple definition, where food is grown. Experts know that not all soils are the same; each has its own history and unique value.

Ordinarily, geologists assert that soil comes from rock that has been ground down through millenniums of time, producing in the process vital minerals for the soil. No human, of course, was around to witness this assumed lengthy process. It is said that rock slowly crumbles under the influence of water and weather and other conditions. Obviously such things do have an effect on even the most stubborn rock. But are the vast periods of time that geologists talk about really necessary to have produced soil?

Not all geologists seem to think so. Thus in 1963, when the island of Surtsey was born in the Atlantic Ocean, National Geographic magazine reports: “Surging surf ground jagged lava into rounded boulders with a speed that astonished geologists attending Surtsey’s birth.” A few years at most, not countless aeons of time, was all that was involved. Also, volcanic ash accounts for much of the fertile soil of Indonesia and other lands, and it, too, is deposited quickly.

Most importantly, the Bible indicates that earth’s soil was formed rather quickly. It speaks of the dry land and vegetation as all appearing within one creative “day”—a period that the Bible indicates was seven thousand years in length. (Gen. 1:9-13) Appropriately, The Encyclopedia Americana asks: “How long does it take to produce an inch of soil—an inch of fine rock material that supports plants? One may say a few minutes or a few million years. It all depends upon the exact spot and what stage in the cycle we reckon from.”

Of course, there is much more to soil than just ground-up rock. Otherwise it would be like sand, unable to maintain plant life of any size. To grow plants soil must have humus; humus is produced as plants and animals die and their remains decay. Valuable nutrients that will nourish later plants and animals result from this process of death and decay. Animal droppings also supply nutrients.

How Nutrients Are Produced

All together, it appears that at least sixteen elements are needed for plant life to be sustained. Three of these sixteen are taken from the air: carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.

But the other thirteen come from the soil: phosphorus, potassium, nitrogen, calcium, magnesium, iron, sulphur and traces of boron, manganese, copper, zinc, chlorine and molybdenum. The first three of these thirteen are considered “primary elements.” Where appreciable amounts of these thirteen elements are taken from the soil, they need to be replaced so that other healthy plants can appear in the future.

How does soil naturally act on dead organic material to make it usable by plants? Living organisms convert it into forms that can be employed by plants.

A thimbleful of soil contains billions of living organisms, each of which contributes to the vitality or fertility of the soil. In the top layer of soil is where most of these organisms thrive.

Among the larger ones are earthworms, considered the most valuable of all soil invertebrates. They not only break down much of the debris on the earth’s surface, but a]so turn the soil over and aerate it.

Highly productive soils a]so generally have an abundance of microorganisms, bacteria, fungi, actinomycetes, algae and Protozoans. When a plant or an animal dies, its sugars, starches, cellulose and similar compounds are consumed by certain of these organisms. They, in turn, produce carbon dioxide in the soil and also reduce the dead matter to a form that plants can use. When carbon dioxide combines with moisture, carbonic acid is formed; it, in turn, does some of the work of dissolving minerals in the soil.

Nitrogen is vital to the life of plants. It has been estimated by Harry A. Curtis of the Tennessee Valley Authority that there are about 34,500 tons of atmospheric nitrogen over every acre of land area; that makes up about four fifths of the atmosphere. However, plants cannot directly use this nitrogen in its free gaseous state.

Rather, it must be combined with other elements or “fixed.” One of the ways that nitrogen is fixed for use by vegetation is by means of microscopic plants living on the roots of certain plants such as legumes.

However, when men grow a large acreage of crops, a tremendous amount of nutrients is extracted from the soil. One experiment at a Maine agricultural station found that in an acre of potatoes there are about 143 pounds of nitrogen, 26 pounds of phosphoric acid, 232 pounds of potash, 56 pounds of calcium oxide, 30 pounds of magnesium oxide and 11 pounds of sulphur.

Obviously, to restore these nutrients more is necessary than just allowing matters to take care of themselves “naturally.” Otherwise the soil grows weak and, in time, actually becomes infertile. Expert care of soil will not only keep it fertile but result in maximum yields. How can nutrients be restored to farmland?

Restoring Nutrients to Farmland

The first thing that a soil expert will ask is: ‘What is the soil’s pH?’ But just what does “pH” mean?

Well, soils are put into two basic categories: acid or alkaline. On a scale of 0-14 those soils falling into the 0 through 6 category are acid, while those above 7 and through 14 are considered alkaline. Soils that are 7 are considered neutral, neither acid nor alkaline.

Some crops prefer soils that are somewhat more acid, and others, more alkaline. Lime, when added to the soil, makes it more alkaline, that is, raises its pH.

Even if all the thirteen nutrients needed by plants are in the soil, a proper acid/alkaline balance is still necessary. Only in this way will plants be able to benefit fully from the nutrients that are in the soil.

Lime added to the soil does at least three things. It supplies needed calcium oxide. Secondly, it keeps some elements in check so that these will not poison the crop. Thus as the pH of acid soil is increased by adding lime, such elements as aluminum, iron, manganese, copper and zinc become less soluble. In more acidic soil the excessive presence of these elements will be harmful to crops, but as the pH of the soil is increased they become more inert. Thirdly, lime releases other elements that the plants can use to good advantage, while encouraging the growth of vital bacteria in the soil.

Since each soil is different, it is vital to consider what each one needs in the way of added nutrients. The primary ones, nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and potassium (K), are the substances represented by the three sets of figures on a bag of commercial fertilizer. For instance, 10-12-8 stands for the percentage of nitrogen (10%), phosphorus (12%) and potassium (8%) in the bag.

Where do these fertilizers come from?

Today many farmers and gardeners say that they prefer to use only “natural” organic fertilizers such as manure, sewerage, sludge and compost to provide needed soil nourishment. The use of these products has long been recognized as a fundamental way of returning nutrients to the soil while at the same time adding humus. It is still a very common way of fertilizing soil in Asia, Africa and Latin America.

But much fertilizing done in the Western world today is on a very large scale. It is not possible to provide enough organic fertilizer for these gigantic operations. Fertilizing just one acre of land can require fifteen tons of animal manure. Obtaining such amounts is virtually out of the question for most farming operations today. So what is the alternative? “Chemical fertilizers.”

Some persons claim that chemical fertilizers are harmful if used to promote growth of food for humans. But a report by the U.S. House of Representatives notes: “No reliable evidence was presented that the use of chemical fertilizers has had a harmful or detrimental effect on the health of man or animals.” Nor has it definitely been proved that such chemicals, if used properly, harm soil life. Even “organic” gardeners use some rock powder, including rock phosphate, potash rock and crushed limestone, to build up the soils.

One farmer who has relied on chemical fertilizers for many years reasons: “The plants do not care where the nutrients come from, just as long as they get them.” Similarly, honest “organic” gardeners know too that a balanced view toward plant nutrition must be maintained. Says Organic Gardening and Farming: “There’s little agreement among soils experts on the comparative merits of natural fertilizers (nor on chemical fertilizers either, if the truth be known). Natural fertilizer makers call university agronomists lackeys of the petro-chemical industry . . . University scientists retaliate by labeling soil-conditioning salesmen as hucksters selling bags full of magic and hot air. There is no doubt some truth in both criticisms . . . Honest men stand on both sides of the fence.”

But how do men produce the “primary elements,” nitrogen, potassium and phosphorus, in chemical fertilizers?

Their main source of nitrogen is synthetic ammonia. This comes as a result of combining nitrogen and hydrogen. Pure gaseous nitrogen can be obtained with relative ease by removing from the air oxygen and other gases. Hydrogen is a byproduct of petroleum. Synthesizing the two results in the needed ammonia. Some ammonia is put directly into the soil as a watery solution. However, most is converted into a solid and used by farmers and gardeners in that form. Most phosphates and potassium come from mineral deposits that are ground to the proper consistency.

Future of the Soil

Men have made and continue to make some very foolish mistakes in the way they deal with the earth. But, if properly cared for, the soil can produce crops indefinitely, even as noted in a Farm Journal editorial: “Soil that is properly fertilized and managed is not being used up. It is a renewable resource, as proved by the lands in Europe and Asia which have been cultivated continuously for thousands of years.”

Yes, this valuable “resource”—a few inches of soil—must be kept healthy to grant its greatest yield.

Can You Get By for Less?

PRICES keep going in one direction—up! The soaring cost of living today threatens to wipe out what little savings some have managed to scrape together. Especially hard hit are people on fixed incomes.

Is there anything that you can do to neutralize the impact of rising prices? Let us consider approaches to the problem that certain persons have found practical.

Must You Have It?

When thinking of buying something, you will find it profitable to ask: “Do I really need it?” Does the use you get out of an automobile, for example, offset the expense of buying it, paying for insurance, keeping the car fueled and in good repair, not to mention the loss through depreciation? If you really do need a car, could you cut back on its use by planning errands in advance, or by occasional use of public transportation? And how about car pooling—not just for men going to work, but for friends arranging to go to market or to share in other activities?

Could you meet your clothing needs less expensively? When a housewife in Santiago, Chile, noticed one day that her coat was wearing out, she became perplexed, being unable to afford a new one. She explains: “One day I commented favorably about the coat of one of my friends. ‘Oh,’ my friend responded, ‘this is just my old winter coat turned inside out.’I tried the same thing and found that it is not at all difficult to take a coat apart and sew it back together inside out. Simply following the old seam markings, along with some small changes in the collar and pockets, made my coat look like new.”

When this frugal housewife notes that the elbows are wearing thin on sweaters, she switches the sleeves, exposing an entirely new area of material to the wearer’s elbows. Could similar procedures save you money?

Can You Buy It for Less?

Even when you really need something new, you may get by for less by watching for sales. In some countries there is a yearly pattern to “clearance sales.” By acquainting yourself with the pattern, you may achieve considerable savings.

While better stores have better sales, many try to move their sale materials quickly. They may sponsor one- or two-day sales at drastically reduced prices. A word, though, about quality: Better-quality goods, especially in long-term, heavy-wear clothing such as suits, will prove to be less expensive in the long run than clothes of poor quality at lower prices.

You gain further savings on clothes if you buy “imperfect” garments and repair them at home, or by buying secondhand items, which are often of better quality than new things at higher prices.

Have you ever tried bargaining for a better price? A housewife who is an experienced shopper relates:

“After living for two years in lands where bargaining for a better price was a daily procedure at the market, I returned to set up housekeeping in the United States, where the practice is almost unknown. Needing several lamps, I searched the newspapers for sales, finally locating one at a well-known department store. I winced, however, upon hearing the total price of the lamps that I wanted.

“It then occurred to me that I might bargain for a better price. Summoning the store’s ‘buyer,’ I explained my needs and how I felt about the cost. We were able to agree on a better price. So, don’t think that it is bad manners to bargain in this way. If there is nothing wrong with merchants raising prices, there is nothing wrong with customers trying to get them reduced.”

Do you live in an area where you can purchase things through a mail-order catalog? This may result in considerable reductions on last season’s merchandise, or items that have not moved well.

In many communities “trader” papers are distributed free to householders. These papers include a wide variety of things that local residents wish to sell or trade, sometimes at great savings.

Food Storage by Home Canning

Food costs are especially high today. Could you save money by storing food? An inexpensive way of doing this is home canning. The process destroys yeasts, molds and bacteria and also prevents chemical action that causes food to go bad.

Most home canning involves the use of glass Mason jars. A rubber ring fitted over the top of the jar serves as a “gasket.” The metal cap is screwed down onto this, creating a seal that prevents air and bacteria from getting to the contents. In some countries people can buy special equipment for home canning, including jars, sealing lids and other utensils. However, if you live in an area where these things are not available commercially, you can improvise your own equipment. A housewife offers this advice that she personally tested:

“Save jars with screw-on lids. First, though, run your finger around the topmost edge of the jars to make sure that they are completely smooth. Any nicks or cracks will prevent proper sealing. Then, from a source of rubber, such as a blown inner tube, cut out rings that will fit over the jar’s opening. Test your workmanship by screwing on the lid. Does it fit tightly? Can you fill the jars half full of water and turn them upside down without leakage? If so, you are ready to begin canning at home.”

Preserving low-acid foods, such as meat, poultry, fish and common vegetables, requires special steam-pressure canning equipment. But high-acid foods, including nearly all fruits and most (but not all) tomatoes, can be prepared simply with boiling water.

The first step is to wash all containers, rubber rings and lids in hot, soapy water. Rinse and boil these utensils, setting them out to dry in a place free from draft.

Be sure that the food you select is in perfect condition, without blemishes and not overripe. Place it snugly in the jars up to about one-half inch from the top and cover it with boiling liquid, still leaving about one-half inch of space at the top. The liquid may be juice from the fruit, plain water or may contain a small amount of salt or sugar for flavoring. If you are canning tomatoes, you do not have to add any liquid. Just pack them tightly until they are covered with their own juice.

Make sure that the sealing surfaces are free of food particles that could prevent a tight seal; then screw the caps down tightly, provided they are the type that releases the pressure built up during cooking. The filled jars then go into a kettle of boiling water, deep enough to allow for one to two inches of water above the jars and another inch or two of space above the water level to permit vigorous boiling. The jars should rest upon a rack that raises them slightly above the bottom of the kettle so that boiling water may circulate under them.

Cover the kettle and let the contents boil. The time required for boiling will differ according to the type of food. Ten minutes is sufficient for tomatoes. Information on correct canning procedures can be obtained from good cookbooks, manufacturers of home canning equipment and from bulletins published by the Office of Information, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. 20025.

When you remove the jars from the boiling water, set them upright on a towel or rack to cool. As the jars cool, watch to see if the center of the lid draws down, making it concave. If it does, and you handle your jars gently, the food will keep for months. If it does not, eat it in the immediate future, for it will not keep without refrigeration.

Could a Freezer Help You to Save?

Next to home canning, freezing is one of the most widely used methods of preserving food. Could a freezer help you to get by for less?

That depends on several factors. As pointed out in Changing Times of May 1974:

“On the average a freezer costs around $30 to $50 a year to operate, so to net any savings, you’d have to save more than that on specials you were able to take advantage of because you had the freezer to store the food in or by growing foods you could freeze.”

If you buy everything that you put into a freezer at retail prices, it is unlikely that you will save. However, if you grow your own food, buy it in bulk quantities, or take advantage of special in-season sales, savings may result.

Food Preservation by Drying

Much of the earth’s population preserves food by drying; and it need not require any equipment. Almost anything can be placed upon a clean surface or be hung up, perhaps covered by a thin cloth to discourage flies. The air and sun will do the rest. But what if the climate is too humid for this? An experience of a woman from the western United States is interesting:

“I had laid out some figs on racks to dry. But, as the humidity here was about 84 percent, some of them deteriorated. I had been baking, and the oven was still warm. I figured that the air in there would be dry enough. So in went the figs for 10-15 minutes under high heat. Then I turned it down low for an hour, and finally off, leaving them in there until the oven cooled.

“As some batches produced juice, I matched it with equal parts of sugar, brought it to a boil and dipped each fig and returned it to the rack for another brief session in the oven. When sticky dry, figs can be bagged (preferably in cloth) to hang in the air . . . for months.”

You do not even need an oven for drying food. Roy Dycus, writing in Organic Gardening and Farming, points out: “A cardboard box can be converted into a drier for apples, peaches, beans, pumpkins, squash, beef and venison jerky, fruit leather, raisins, prunes and tomatoes. If you’re in a hurry, it will even dry seeds and herbs.” How is all that possible?

The article explains that food strips can be suspended on sticks that are run through the box from end to end. Heat for drying comes from a lightbulb that protrudes into one end of the box. Simple?

Saving money amidst rising prices is admittedly a challenge. But if you are willing to exchange convenience for hard work, you can get by for less.

What About Salt?

LONG before the Creator brought the first human couple, Adam and Eve, together, he performed another marriage. What was that? As the Master Chemist he brought about the union between sodium (Na) and chlorine (Cl), resulting in common table salt. Thereby he changed two deadly poisons into a wholesome substance.

And what a widespread product salt is! All the oceans contain about 3 percent salt, while such seas as the Dead Sea have about 25 percent minerals, largely salt. In the United States, more than 85 million tons of salt are used annually by its food and chemical industries. Our bodies contain some three to four ounces of it. Our tears, blood and perspiration are salty. The kidneys keep our salt balance, for which reason urine is salty. In fact, the body maintains a very delicate balance between the sodium (in salt) and such other elements as potassium, calcium and magnesium.

The Bible’s first reference to salt is to the “Salt Sea,” in the days of Abraham. Lot’s wife “became a pillar of salt.” (Gen. 14:3; 19:26) The law of Moses required certain offerings to be ‘seasoned with salt.’ (Lev. 2:13) And, in the days of Ezra, salt was among the items officially commanded to be supplied along with wheat, wine and oil.—Ezra 6:9; 7:22.

Salt was so valuable in ancient Rome that it was used as money, soldiers being given part of their salary in salt. This part was called the salarium, from which comes the word “salary.” Thus a man “not worth his salt” was not worth his wages.

Because of its antiseptic qualities salt is used as a preservative, as in salted herring, in pickles and in sauerkraut. It can also be used as a mouthwash or gargle and in brushing the teeth. So beneficial is salt that, in an official medical publication, two physicians once stated: “Probably the proper use of water and electrolyte solutions [essentially saline solutions] is responsible for saving more lives of seriously ill patients than is the use of any other group of substances.” Saline solutions serve as plasma volume expanders to compensate for the loss of blood. Experience has shown that, in cases of severe burns, drinking a solution of one teaspoon of salt and one-half teaspoon of soda in a quart of water is just as effective as giving blood transfusions, with the added advantage that there are none of the risks associated with blood transfusions.

Some persons today question the need of salt, but the fact that the body loses salt by perspiration can indicate that we need some salt. Besides, Jesus said, “Salt, to be sure, is fine.” (Luke 14:34) That it is essential for physical well-being seems to be borne out by the salt licks to which grazing animals resort.

But there definitely is a danger of taking in too much salt. Especially should those who eat much meat be very sparing in their use of salt. According to one medical authority, the average person takes in about a half ounce of salt daily, but could get along well on just one fifth of that amount. If the excess salt is not eliminated, the result is dropsy. There has also been shown to be a direct relationship between salt and high blood pressure.

So avoid making the use of salt a habit. At least, taste your food before adding salt. The salt habit not only may tax your kidneys and cause high blood pressure but also will likely cause you to eat too much. When you have parties, it might be a kindness not to serve only salty foods with the drinks. Consider also serving unsalted nuts and such toothsome raw vegetables as carrot sticks and celery stalks. In this way your guests will be avoiding too much salt as well as getting a more balanced repast. And when you do use salt on your food, you may find it beneficial to use a vegetable salt, which can help to cut down on your intake of actual sodium chloride.

There is still another reason for being sparing in your use of salt. The salt habit denies you the pleasure of the many subtle individual flavors that various foods have, especially vegetables. Of course, largely tasteless things, such as the white of an egg, may require a little salt, even as ancient Job noted: “Will tasteless things be eaten without salt?” (Job 6:6) But, remember, when you use salt, use it sparingly.

Business in Narrow Waters

By “Awake!” correspondent in New Zealand

THE hour is early and daylight has not yet crept across the still waters of Auckland Harbor, as a solitary figure walks along the jetty to the waiting launch. As he steps aboard, the launch master says: “The signal station has just reported that she is nine miles outside the fairway buoy. We had better get moving.” With a muffled drone of diesel engines, the pilot cutter moves out into the darkness.

With her crew of three, the cutter proceeds down the channels to the vicinity of the fairway buoy at the entrance to the harbor. It is a strongly built vessel, some sixty-five feet in length and capable of exceeding ten knots. “I can see her lights now,” says the launch master, and a radio-telephone message confirms that the pilot ladder will be on the port side, which, tonight, is the lee side. (The lee side is opposite to the weather side.)

The night is quiet, with a slight swell, and very soon the dark shadow of a big freighter can be discerned beneath her navigation lights. Soon the cutter comes quietly alongside. The two vessels are still moving at perhaps five to six knots (or, nautical miles per hour) when the pilot steps onto the rope ladder suspended from the ship’s rail and commences a climb that may be anywhere from ten to thirty feet or more. Over his portable radio-telephone he asks the deckhand below to “be sure to send up the mail,” which is hoisted up the side by means of a light rope. It is traditional in most ports for the pilot to bring out the mail addressed to the crew.

Not always is the boarding of this harbor pilot carried out under such ideal conditions. In gales, with a big sea running, a high degree of seamanship is called for in choosing the right moment to leap from the heaving deck of the pilot cutter to the ladder.

The third officer and an able seaman help the harbor pilot over the rail and escort him to the bridge. The bridge and wheelhouse are in darkness so as not to impair the vision of those in charge, but a face illuminated by the light of the binnacle (the fitting that houses the compass) is the face of the man at the wheel, the quartermaster, as he is usually called on merchant ships. He is steering a compass course that has been given him by the master of the ship. The pilot now steps over to a silent figure standing against the windows and looking ahead. He introduces himself to this shadowy figure, the captain or master of the ship, and the pair shake hands.

Handing Over

This captain is Greek and he has brought his ship out to New Zealand via the Cape of Good Hope. He speaks fluent English, so, on this occasion, there is no difficulty in communication. But of the more than two thousand vessels employing pilots in the port of Auckland each year, virtually every maritime nation is represented—Russian, Scandinavian, American, British, Japanese and numerous others.

This ship has encountered heavy weather in the Great Australian Bight after running east across the southern Indian Ocean. The captain advises that some damage has been done to the windlass, the apparatus for lifting and lowering the anchors. “if it is necessary to anchor,” the captain tells the pilot, “would you please use the starboard anchor only. Our draft is 32 feet aft and 29 feet forward, approximately. Our engines are single screw diesel . . . a little slow in reversing, but I do not anticipate any undue problems . . . she is usually good steering in this trim. What about Customs formalities and port health officials? I have not been to this port before.”

With these exchanges the ship is handed over to the pilot, in this instance a perfect stranger to the captain, and as yet scarcely visible in the darkness of the wheelhouse. Such is the confidence born of tradition and a remarkable accord in international regulations and protocol between nautical men.

“Steady as you go,” the pilot says to the man at the wheel, meaning to continue steering the same course. Then, “Full ahead,” he says to the third mate, who has remained on the bridge and whose further duty it is to record all engine movements given by the pilot, in the event of subsequent casualty.

Conning the Ship

The ship is now entering the channel, and the fairway or sea buoy is close on the port side. “Hard aport,” says the pilot to the helmsman. This man responds by simultaneously repeating the order and turning the wheel as far as it will go to the left. He has really actuated a large steering engine connected to the rudder, which engine has turned the ship’s rudder to the left. It is only in quite small ships that manually operated apparatus is sufficiently strong to turn the rudder. This ship is 550 feet overall and, at this draft, displaces about 25,000 tons, which, if we remember the principle of Archimedes, equals the weight of the ship and everything in her. Slowly at first, the ship responds to this rudder action. Interestingly, a ship pivots on a point about a third of her length from the bow so that her stern is sweeping over an area that is enclosed by the perimeter of a circle, whose radius, in the case of this vessel, is nearly 380 feet. This fact is not always appreciated by small pleasure-boat owners operating in the vicinity of oceangoing vessels. Such craft should keep well clear of maneuvering ships, particularly when they are turning.

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Awake!, August 8, 1975