Awake!, November 8, 1946
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Radioactivity Put to Work
What is radioactivity? and what jtre some of its practical uses?
Aviation Shrinks Our Globe
cent advances in design- endurance and speed
Monarchs of the: High Sierras
: grandeur of the largest and oldest of earth’s inhabitants
Who Sponsors the Greek Monarchy?
THE MISSION OF THIS JOURNAL
News sources that are able to keep you awake to the vital issues of our times must he unfettered by censorship and selfish interests. "Awake!" has no fetters. It recognizea facts, faces fa^ts. S free to publish facts. It is not bound by politicsl ambitions or obligations; it is unhampered by advertisers wncs - toes must not he trodden on; it is unprejudiced by traditional creeds. This journal keeps itself free that it may speak freely to you. But it does not abuse its freedom. It maintains integrity to truth.
"Awake 1” uses the regular news channels, but is not dependent on them. Its own correspondents are on all continents, in scores ofnations. From the four corners of the earth their uncensored. on-the-scenes reports come to you through these columns. This journal's viewpoint is not narrow, but is intetnational. It is read in many nations, in many languages, by persons of all ages. Through its pages many fields of knowledge pass in review—-go'o-erninent, commerce, religion, history, geography, science, social conditions, natural wonders—why, its cover-^e is as broad as the earth and as high as the heavens.
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Radioactivity Put to Work
Natural Radioactivity
Artificial Radioactivity
Some Practical Aspects of Radioactivity 7
Aviation Shrinks Our Globe
Giants of the Skyways
Importance of Research
Do You Want to Increase Your Life Span? 12
Mouarcbs of the High Sierras
The Largest Living Thing
The Oldest Living fhing
Co-operation of Mot.h and Yucca
ENTS
“Thy Word Is Truth”
Born Again, from Above
Slippery Jesuit History
Who Sponsors the Grpek Monarchy?
Defeuse Granted .JehovoM; witnesses
by Courts
Some Contentions of Counsel
Position of Witnesses Vindicated
Cases for Release from Prison
Writing Presideut Truman
Witnessca Did Not Compromise
Wntching the World
Awake/
®<tfNow it is high time to awake.'—Romans !3:H
Volume XXVli
Brooklyn, N. Y., November 8, 1946
Number 7r1
RADIOACTIVITY
PUT TO
WORK
WHEN Jehovah God caused the creation of this beautiful earth, He set in operation a mighty laboratory the intricacy and diversity of which bespeak the majesty and the power of its divine Architect. Daily the splendent sun sends forth it:-; radiant beams, not only to lighten the earth, but also to create an infinite variety of substances for the health and well-being of earthly creatures. Continuously, day and night, summer and winter, year in and year out, powerful natural forc.es ceaselessly perform the bidding of their omnipotent Creator. 'frees grow, flowers bloom, fruits ripen, the tides flow, and tJe earth moves with infinite precision amidst the galaxy of the heavens, all in obedience to the will of the Most High God.
Of the many natural forces with which the earth is endowed, that of radioactivity is of particular interest at this time. This is so, not only because of its prominence in the news events of the day, but because it is another one of the many tools with which man has been enabled to peer into some of the myster-NOVEMBER 8, 10M;
ies of earth's creation, and because it is destined to become of increasing importance in the future. Just what is this natural phenomenon which is so widely known as radioactivityf and does it possess any immediate beneficial j?roperties for mankind's use"
To understand the nature of this phenomenon, it is necessary first of all that one have some knowledge in general of the basic structure of all matter. To this end the reader is referred to OornsolatiMi No. 697, •wherein the structure of matter is discussed in some detail in the article entitled ''Atomic Energy''. Here wei shall merely reiterate the pertinent farts required for the discussion of the subject of this article. A knowledge of how nuclear energy may be released by the simple process of chnnging the structure of the nucleus of nu atom readily discloses that radioactivity is inextricably associated with transmutation and nuclear’ fission. In fact, radioactivity is a major factor in. volvecl in the use of atomic energy for practical purposes.
Structure of Matter
In this laboratory named the earth, every known substance of which man has any knowledge, be it liquid, solid, or gaseous, is composed of one or more of the ninety-two basic elements, from hydrogen to uranium. A substance may consist of hut one of these elements or it may consist of any number of them in combination. Hence, it is possible for a near infinite variety of substances to be compounded by changing the munbtr and variety of elements entering into their composition. The elements themselves, however, are composed of atoms, each one of which constitutes a miniature solar system, and, in any particular element in its normal state, all the atoms in general are exactly alike, each atom having a definite number of elemental parts all arranged according to a fixed natural law.
Every atom of every element contains a mass-center named the “nucleus” around which in fixed orbits revolve electrons in much the same manner as the planets revolve around the sun. The mass-centered nucleus is the basic part of every atom. Its structure, in all except hydrogen, consists of two kinds of particles closely Ijonnd together in one compact mass. One of the two kinds of nn-clear particles carries a positive electrical charge, whereas the other particle carries neither a positive nor a negative electrical charge. The first is named a "proton"; the second, a •'neutron" liecause of its neutral electrical state. This atomic nucleus iR the sole factor that determines to which ore of the ninety-two elements an atom belongs. In other words, it is the structure of the nucleus that determines whether an elemental substance is iron or gold, or whether it is carbon or radium, etc. No two elements contain the same number of protons and neutrons wJten in thjir normal stable state. The elements having the lesser weight contajn hut a few of these particles in their nuclei, whereas those of heavier weight contain many particles.
As an example., helium atom nuclei contain four particles each, the heavier lead nuclei contain 207, and radium 226 particles. Thus it is at once realized that if one has possession of the necessary laboratory instnnnents whereby it be possible to alter the number and combination of these nuclear particles, then it is entirely within the realm of possibility to change or transmute one kind of element into another kind of element. Not only is such possible, hut it is actually being done daily. This concept of the structure of atomic nuclei is of fun-damejital importance in understanding the nature of radioactivity.
Natural Radioactivity
As early as the year 1896, men engaged in scientific, research discovered that certain substances found in the earth's suTface continuously and spontaneously emitted radiations. It was found that these radiations continued to exist for long periods o£ time with but little diminution. Notable among the elements that exhibited this phenomenon was that of radium. By subjecting these radiations to a strong magnetic field it is possible to analyze them and from such an analysis learn about the characteristics of the radiations. Tims doing, it was learned that the radiations from radium consisi of three parts, namely: alpha particles, which are simply the nuclei of helium atoms; beta particles, that is, electrons; and gamma I’ays, which are electromagnetic waves of the same nature as X rays, or as the radiations from a radio broadcasting station, only gamma radiations have a very high frequency, higher than those of X rays. Further research disclosed that other substances in the earth's surface likewise are radioactive. However, only those substnnces of higher atomic weight, :mch as uranium, thorium, actinium, and the recently artiilcially ere-ated plutonium, naturally possess this property.
Now here is a most interesting phenomenon, one that is entirely spontaneous. So far as is known, there is no external power in evidence to generate the radiations. The parlicles composing the alpha rays and the beta rays are fundamentally matter, and therefore are just as rea] and tangihle as the paper upon which this is written. Being Teal, tangible substance and possessing tangible motion, and such motion continuing unabated over centuries of time, it is readily seen that a coJossal amount of energy is represented in these radiations. •Whence comes this energy? and, if these particle radiations constitute real matter, does the original substance, the radium for instance, gradually waste away by losing masB! The answers to these questions arc directly related to other questions, sueh as, \Vhat is the source of the great heat and light radiated by the sun? What is the cause of earth's internal heat? And, in general, what is atomic energy'
Present-day knowledge of radioactivity discloses that this phenomenon is due to some h"'ind of instability of the nucleus within the atom of the radioactive snh-stance. That is, the nucleus of the atom is not according to type as established by the laws of nature, and, in the process of returning to type, either electrons, protons, alpha particles, or gamma raysi singly ot in combination, are ejected from the atom. In some radioactive substances only electrons are ejected; in some others, neutrons or protons i in others, alpha particles; and, in certain substances, all are ejected simultaneously.
These radiations require energy to produce them, and the interesting fact is that this energy resides wholly within the atom itself. No chemical action of any description has any effect upon the radiations whatsoever. Chemical action may affect the combination of atoms forming molecules. or it may affect the outer layer of electrons of an atom, but none is powerful enough to penetrate the atom to its nucleus. Radioactivity of the natural elements is just as intense at plus 2,000 degrees as at minus 200 degrees, its rate is unaffected at any temperature produced by chemical action. Here, tlten, is positive proof that whatever is the cause of radioactivity, its source must lie within the atom itself. Moreover, if the energy producing the spontaneous radiations lies with the atom, then the atom as a whole cannot be a simple entity, but must embody powerful forces and must consist of a complex structure. This view of the source of radioactivity is enhanced when it is remembered that no air exists within the structure of an atom. Therefore, as concerns the atomic world the conditions are identical to that which exists in the stany vault of the heavens.
DIAGRAM A - DIAGRAM D
Dingram A: Gj^aph showing decrease of itnliation with passage of time. Dingram B: Illustrating one method of identifyng various types of radiation. Radioactive substance is placed iu field of powerful electromagnet, as at .c in diagram. Mugnetic field causes radiations to he divided into groups, here indicated as alpht,. beta and !Jinliiit(t rays. By noLing the directions of the rays, their radius of curvature, and the degree they spread out from the point of emanation, one may learn the nature of the radia-tious. It is disclosed tbnt alpha rays consist of heavy, positively charged parlicles; the beta rays, light, negatively charged particles; anti the garJ.a rays, neither positively nor negatively charged particles, hut eledromagnetie waves of super-high frequency.
Every artificially created radioactive substance is a freak, a freak in that it does not conform to type, but has the power to correct itself and thereby return to type. During the time of transformation to type, the intensity of the radiations gradually decreases at an exponential rate towards zero. Inasmuch as the intensity decreases at an exponential rate, therefore, theoretically, the radiations never actually cease but can only approach zero, or, as mathematicians would say, the intensity is asymptotic to the time axis in the positive direction. For that reason scientists engaged in atomic research hnve adopted a unit of measurement applicable to radioactivity which Jias been named the ''half-life" of the substance. Thus, for instance, one form of radioactive copper has a half-lile of 12.8 hours, and radioactive carlion n half-life of 1,000 years, etc. That simply means, in the ease of carbon 1,000 years are required for the radioactivity to decrease to one-half of its original value, and that it never quite becomes zero.
Artificial Radioactivity
Just how a radioactive substance adjusts itse1f so as to conform to type may be more clearly understood by noting what occurs in artificial (man-mduced) radioactivity. Consider, for instance, the element carbon. Now, carbon in its no:rmaJ state has an atomic weight of twelve, and its atomic number is six, that is, every atom of carbon contains a nucleus consisting of twelve particles each of unit mass, and rotating around the nucleus are six electrons. Since there are sh. electrons in the atom, the nucleus must contain the same number of protons (sh) each carrying unit positive charge in order to preserve the electrical balance, and, since there is a total of twelve particles within the nucleiiSi then the difference between twelve and the number of protons (six) must be the number of neutrons withiin the atom, namely, si.x. Therefore the atom as a whole consists of six protons, SL"'C neutrons, and six electrons.
Should this element carbon be placed in a laboratory device named a cyclotron, and it be bombarded by neutrons, it is possible to change the atomic structure of the element by adding one or more neutrons to it in the bombarding process. So doing; imagine one neutron is added; it is still carbon hut it now has a mass of thirteen (twelve pins one equals thirteen) and is stable, and therefore is an isotope of carbon. Imagine another neutron is added. Strange things now begin to he in evidence. The original carbon element having a mass of twelve has increased to a mass of fourteen, which is the same mass as tliat of the element nitrogen. Since this bombarded element carbon now occupies the same atomic space as nitrogen, there is a violation (or shall we say a usurpation of assignment?) of the natural laws as established by the Creator, and, therefore, some kind of readjustment auto-rnatically occurs.
WJiat is the readjustment, do you ask T The answer is, radioactivity. This is wliat occurs according to experimental observations. The radioactive carbon having a mass of fourteen will automatically transform one neutron into a proton and during the process one electron will be eje<lted. In so doing the atom becomes stable. The electron ejected when added to those from millions of similar atoms constitutes one form of radio-
+ o
+ o
activity, and in this particular case is muned Tadioaetive carbon. It is thus seen that radioactivity is an outward manifestation of an internal reaction, an unstable condition adjusting itself to one of stability. Furthermore, if the masses of the various atoms be taken into cmisideration, it is found that in every case of radioactivity there is a Joss of mass, and which mass is transformed into energy manifesting itself in the foi’m of radioactive products. In short, radioactivity is one form of atomic energy resulting from the transformation of mass within the nucleus.
Inasmuch as radioactivity is always an outward manifestation of an interchange between mass and energy within an atom, it is readily seen that every radioactive substance is constantly losing mass or weight. That fact becomes quite evident when one observes the cyclical changes that the natural element uranium undergoes in its quest for complete stahility. Uranium has an atomic weight of 238 mass units. Due to the radioactive transformations which are constantly in operation this element gradually disintegrates into lead, and throughout the time energy is constantly being liberated in the form of radio-aetive products.
The amount of energy represented in the loss of mass has been proved to be proportional to the square of the velocity o£ light and, therefore, has an enormous magnitude. Can it be that herein NOVEMBER 8, 1046 lies the cause of the earth’s internal heat, or of the light and thermal radiations from the sun T There are strong reasons for believing that such is the fact. Not only the naturally radioactive elements, such as uranium, thorium, radium, and actinium, within the earth contribute to this atomic energy in the form of heat, but these radioactive elements induce radioactivity by bombardment iii other substances in their immediate vicinity, adding to the total heat so generated.
Some Practical Aspects of Radioactivity
Present-day applications of radioactivity are interesting to note. The most extensive usage, perhaps, is that by the medical profession and others engaged in biological research. For such purposes, certain of the natural elements, such as sodhun, phosphorus, iodine, carbon, iron, and others, are made radioactive artificially by using the bombarding technique descriBed in the former paragraphs for carbon. Their half-life periods vary from minutes to hours or even days, depending upon the kind of substance used and the intensity o£ the bomba:ding potential. These radioactivated substances are then fed or injected in safe and controlled amounts into the living tissue of plants and animals, including humans. Using radioactive detectors, such as Giger-Muller counters and photographic j)lates, the "tagged atoms'' of these radioactive substances can be traced as they travel
through tJie organism of the animal or plant body. So doing, much may be learned about the internal activities of these organisms beyond our sight.
Haclioactive substances artificiallv created have also been successfully used in the treatment of cancer so it is reported. Also, recently a device has been invented that is of valne to printing establishments and similar plants troubled with static electricity generated by rapidly moving belts, rolls of paper, ek In this invention a radioactive> substance is so located relative to the mo,..Jng paper stock that the radiations' ionizing the air causes the static charge to leak nff harmlessly. It is used in tli(> petroleum industry to ohtain knowledge ot' the subsurface structure of the earth's crust in the vicinity of oil wells. It is used to ]ocate minerals in mines, and recently an ingenious device has been invented that. is capable of measuring the level of fluids within tanlu:;, boilers, pipe-s, etc., where other instruments of measurement are impossible to use by making use of the versatile properties of this phenomenon. UnJouhtedly, further applications will be made from time to time as the need arises.
While the pm;sihilities for using radioactivity are seemingly infinite in number, from the present-day status of scientific knowledge it is known that radioactive emanations can be and are extremely dangerous to an animal organism when not used in controlled amounts. Their effect. upon a human body, for instanec7 is similar to that resulting from an overdose of X rays. For that reason men employed in laboratory research working near such bombarding devices as cyclotrons, betatrons, etc., are particularly cautious to work behind carefully designed shields. For the same reason, immediately after tlte recent Bildnj atoll ‘.A bomb" tests, no oiie was permitted to approach near the site of the bomb explosion until certain tests of the radioactivity indicated the region to be safe for human life. Shields around powerful cyclotrons and betatrons in some laboratories are of huge proportions, consisting of thick walls of con-erete or of deep tanks of water. While such protection to personnel is necessary because of insufficient knowledge concerning the control of radioactive emanations, the extent of the protection required is a gange whereby one may correctly appraise the magnitude of the latent potentialities residing within this phenomenon, and bence the extent o£ its power for useful purposes in the future.
Today7 wlmt little knowledge men have of this mai’velons phenomenon is sufficient to inrlicate that the possibilities for its pTactical usefulness in the futnre are limitless. Ii it can heat the earth, why can it not also heat a house, for instance J If radioactivity can canse the material elements to emit electrons, and these electrons are identical to those i:u a copper wire carrying an electrical current, tlien why cannot radioactivity eventually be used not only to heat a house or a city, but also to give light to them, yes, to generate radio waves and to detect them, and a thousand other functions as well? Even now it is known that a source of light can and lias been produced which is due solely to radioactivity, and which has operated continuously for seventy hours. Also, the gamma rays emitted by radioactivity from certain substances are exceedingly powerful X rays. Is there any reason why these caimot eventually be harnessed £or useful purposes, even as low-powered X rays are of gTeat benefit to mankind in a thousand ways now t True, till is not as rosy as it might seem ; there are obstacles to be overcome before such a radioactive Utopia can be realized. Bnt this phenomenon is not a mere accident; it is embodied in God's creative handiwork; and that fact is sufficient assurance to cause one to expect it to be used extensively for mankind's benefit in due time.
AVIATION Shrinks
Our
GLOBE
N 1910 Glenn H. Curtiss flew from Al
bany to New York, a distance of 150 miles, in 2 Jionrs 51 minutes, actual flying time. Thirty-six years later the same course was covered in 16 minutes 20 seconds, and this is a fair sample of the shrinkage aviation lms made in the time-distance around the earth.
Even within the -past year many new speed records have been set up. On December 8, 1945, a Douglas XB-42, averaging 432 miles per hour, cut off 46 minutes from the coast-to-coast Tecord. But this record was smashed six weeks later by a jet-propelled P-80, averaging 584.6 miJes per hour. From Los Angeles to New York, 2,470 miles, hi 4 hours 13 minutes! It took Calbraith Perry Rodgers, in 19ll, 49 days to eross the continent.
Flying from New York to England on February 4, 1946, a Constellation knocked nearly 2 hours of£ the former commercial time, making the 3,400-mile hop in 12 hours 9 minutes flying time. Then, five days later a new record of 13 hours 30 minutes was established for the east to west crossing of the Atlantic.
On the Pacific side in April of this year a Constellation Clipper flew from Shanghai to Seattle in 21 hours 2G minutes. The time from Tokyo was 17 hours 26 minutes, with a stopover in the .Aleutians. Other flight times are. from Mimni, Fla.i to Newark, N. J., 5 hours 23 minutes; from New York to Washington, D. C., 29 minutes 15 seconds; from Chicago to Rome, 33 hours 39 minutes.
All former nonstop distance records were smashed 011 October 1 by the Truculent Turtle. Averaging 203.4 miles an hour against a 11.5 mph. average headwind, this long-distance navy patrol plane ilew from Perth, Australia, to Co-himbns, Ohio, in 55 hours 15 minutes. A distance of 11,236 miles, nearly halfway around the globe, Ui a little over two days. Magellan would have said, "Impossible ! it took me over a year to sail halfway around."'
More significant than a mere long-distance flight was the one made over the polar icecap from Honolulu to Cairo, Egn)t, on October 6. Tire plane, the Pa-cnsan Dreamboat, took off with an overload of 29,000 pounds of extra gasoline, and its crew of ten made the hop of 10,854 statute miles nonstop in 39 hours 36 minutes. It was a regular B-29 having no special ice-deforming equipment, thus demonstrating that regular commercial Hights over the arctic route are practical
Before the war an international speed record of 325.713 mph. was set by Italy, December 9, 1937. Today that figure seems rather tame. Even in a closed-course race a speed of 515 mph. has been attained, aud hi an open course the English jet plane, Gloster Meteor, established the official record at 606 mph. on November 7, 194n Within the last year this record was shattered anti a new one of 616 mph. took its place. The indications are that this latest one will soon be broken, for man is determined to fy fasteT than the speed of sonud, which is in the neighborhood of 750-775 mph,, depending on the temperature.
Though speed is a good index of the progress made in aviation it does not tell the whole story. Improvements in ship design have given greater carrying power, longer range, more safety and greater versatility to aircraft. Radical depictures from conventional de$igns have also made their avpeanmees in the skies.
One of these, the Flying Wing, made its debut this last summer, and because it lacked the customary fuselage and tail construction, jt looked more like a giant boomerang than au airplane. The idea of doing away wit]j the fuselage is not new, but was put down in blueprint form as far back as 1923. In 1929 an experimental semi-fying wing was built and flown for a few years, and that was the forerunner of this present giant of the air. Giant indeed! A B-29 superiortress has an overload gross weight of 65 tons, to compare with 104 for this monster of the airways.
This ‘‘Wiiig'\ as it is ca1Jed1 has a span of 172 feet, and with its four 3,000-horse-power motors built in, it has the advantage over other types of emistrnction in that it has high "lift" and low "drag” Conventional types of planes will not li£t more than 100,000 pounds for every 1,000 pounds of drag. But when the fuselage and tail gear are done away with, then for every 1,000 pounds of drag there is 140,000 to 200,000 pounds of lift. Greater loads can thus be carried at higher speeds.
The "Flying Pancake" is another radically different type of design. Known as the Navy's XF5U-1, its principal feature is its amazing range in speed. The range between landing speed and top speed for most planes is a ratio of 1 to 4, but this new ship has a ratio of 1 to 10 or J to 20 and better. Translated into miles per hour, its speed range is from 40 to 425 mph. with standard type engines, or with special engines it has a range of 0 to 550 mpli. This means tliat it can hover in the air like a helicopter, or can dig out and streak through space like a jet-propelled Shooting Star.
Helicopters, those fimny-looking 'buzz saws' that are becoming more numerous as time goes on, have also increased their lifting power and range nf di’stanee. The array's R-3 is said to be able to lift a load of 1,100 pounds and cruise at more than 100 mpli. Last February a new world's nonstop distance record of 430 miles in five hours was made in Brazil.
Giants of the Skyways
Aeronautical engineer's have also improved land and sea planes of the fmnil-iur wing-fuselage-tail type. No sooner does a new super skyliner successfully take to the air than the announcement is made that ;‘lwrtly an even bigger superliner will appear. First the J3-17 Flying Fortress; then the B-29 Superfortress; now the XB-3f>, XB-:36 and XC-99, wJjich are so large that they can tuck B-2!J’r under their wings. These six-eDgined giants will accommodate 400 passengers, carry 19,000 gallons of gasoline. have 230-foot wing spans, and rudders 47 to 56 feet high. Imagine, a tail-fin five storif’s higli !
But these figures soon lose their im-pressiveTies8 when compared with the new Howard Hughes $20i000,000 flying boat named Hercules that will soon be launched in Los Angeles harbor. Weighing 212 tons (a B-29 weighs 65 tons) and having a wingspread of 320 feet (the Flying Wing is only 172 feet). it vwil be the biggest plane that man ever flew. The fact that it has eight motors that will tum up 24,000 horsepower is no more marvelous than the fact that it is an allwood ship with a million glne joints.
As a military cargo sJiip the 1J ercules will be able to carry a 60-ton tank, or as a peacetime transocean liner it will accommodate 700 passengers. Seaplanes have certainly come a long way since Glen Curtiss first took to tlw air and suc-eessfnlly landed aguin in the San Diego bay in 1911.
It is manifest that these increases in both the size aml speed of planes liave done mncli to reduce the apparent distances between various points on this
globe of onrs. And it is predicted that aviation will continue to shrink this earth to about one-fifth of its present size in the next the vears. Forecasts are that 1949 wil see planes with speeds of 1,000 mph., and within five years jet planes will reach the unbelievable speed of 2,500 miles an hour. These estimates are bn8ed on the results attaiued from work with rocket weapons. The "ram jet", a variation of jet propulsion, which will operate only at speeds above 800 miles an hour, will be featured in supersonic flying.
There arc some interesting possibilities when flying at 1,^W miles an hour. For example, a man flying from cast to west at the same speed the earth turns upon itR uxis, would remain stationary with the Hun, relatively speaking. Or, as one writer pointed. ont, it wonM hp possible to fly from New York to Ran Francisco, 2,568 miles, in two and a half hours, and becaose of the four-hour time difference (New York being on Daylight time), a passenger would arrive in San Francisco an hour and a half before he left New York!
Importance of Research
It should be remembered that much of the jprogress made by aviation is due to the rontrilmtiom; of research in many lielUs of science, and if further advancements are to be made continued study will he neecssary. If a pilot weighs lialf a ton when making a 1,000-foot-radius tnrn at 300 mHos an hour, what will be the physiological effects upon liim when he makes a sharp turn at 600 or 1,000 mph. 1 If a great vibration is set up on the wings of a plane by a mysterious ''shock wave" when a plane approaches the speed of sound, to what strains will planes be subjerted when flying at supersonic speeds ! If a plane travels through a sub-zero zone to reach the stratosphere, and there increases its speed to 2,500 miles an hour (a speed ut which it picks up 1,100 degrees of surface heat due to NOVEMBER 8, 1946 friction), how will passengers be protected against these terrific changes t Answers to these questions and himdrecls of others can be obtained through research.
So new wind tunnels that duplicate atmospheric conditions at sppcds of 2,600 miles an hom^ are built at a cost of millions of dollars. New test towers and test tanks are built. New airports and runways are planned. New pressurized suits for pilots are devised. "Flying laboratories” ure built, electronic and radar equipment is improved, and cosmic rays are studied.
""bat is all this progress in aviation leading to f "'"ill it result in bringing the people of ull nations closer together into one l)ig, happy family? Will it establish solid unity with a durable peace? As much as we would lilce to believe that these grent airliners will serve as Uoves of peace unifying a contentious and quarrelsome old world, we are, nevertheless, compelled to face the grim realities forced upon us. Look at the promoters and backers of aeronautical research and development. They are men that have graduated from military academies and are trained in the arts and sciencas of modern warfare. Technically their business is that of winning war rather than winning peace. They make no effort to hide the fact that their experiments in the field of aviation are in preparation for what look8 like an inescapable third world war. The Flying Wing, the Shooting Star, the Flying Pancake, the R-5 Buzzsaw Helicopter, the giant XB-36 and the mammoth Hercules are all sponsored, paid for, and owned by the army and navy. The "ram jef' and rockets are also developments of these technicians.
Some not informed on God's purpose concerning the em'th may well wonder if aviation will continue to shrink it until it becomes so small that, with a few super planes loaded with super atom bombs, it will be possible for man to blow this globe out of its celestial orbit.
ll
LONGEVITY is the desire of all normal persons, as evidenced by the millions of dollars annually spent for dactors, bospitals and clinics. Health and self-preservation have been the subject of thousands of volumes. Accident prevention i::; stressed on a national sca]e. Every year great sums of wuney are subscribed for the treatment and study of tuberculosi::; and caneer, all for tiiE.' purpose of increasing the span of life.
The most deadly rnaladv is heart disease, which accouilted for 29 pereent of the mortali ties in 1943, of‘ someth ing lke 426,400 deaths in America. This was au increase of 8 percent over tlw previous year. the remedy is to remove the cnrnse. Some heart specialists have said that a high percentage of beart failures in this generation i:; chip to tile use of the automobile instead of walking, the consumption of large quantities of alcoholic beverages, the incressed m;p of tobacco, overeating, and, in general, the tension and excitement of thi^ demonized old world.
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Dr. M. Forrester-Brown, of Bath, England, lias j)ointed out Itow foolish many of ns are wlHm we neglect to care fol' our bmmw mechanism. Hoise-breed-ers are most careful not to overstrain their valuable colts, yet at the Rame time they neglect their own children. Men spend al their energy designing and improving machines of inorganic sub, stance, but the living mechanisms which are entrusted to them, their own bodies, they abuse and misuse, apparently, it seems, because suCh are so fearfully and wonderfully made as self-regulators.
Sir Thomas Barlow, physician to three British rulers, Queen Victoria, King Edward ^VT and King Ge orge V, died recent^ at the age nrn nrnety-nme. He attributed his longevity to the fact that he abstained from alcohol. ate leisurely, and read good books for relaxation.
Sound Wisdom
These rules of living are not, however, o riginal with hmm nor are they of recent discovery. The apostle Paul advised, ,' Be not drunk with wine, wherein is ex-cess/'But rather "use a little wine for thy stomach'::; Rake and thine often infirmities!''. ( Ephesians 5: 18; 1 Timothy 5:23) Also the apostle Peter counseled against reveling and banqueting to ex-ce::;s with this old world. Fools, though, think it strange if one does not run riot as they do. ( 1 Ppter 4: 3,4) Such reckless living leads to early failure of the heart under the strain.
\\lien it comes to reading good books for refreshment of the weary mind and heart, \vhat hook is there better than the Bible'? Especially when the wiRe man's proverb say::; that longevity will be added to such ns follow God'::; Word of truth: “Uy son, forget not my law; but let tliy heart kwp my commandments: fot length of days, and years of life, aud peace, will they add to thee."
’ No one can raise bimstff up to perfec- — tion. or attain to etei’ial life through his own efforts. Ah the psalmist says, "Be-bold, thou hast made my days as an handbreadth; and mine agp i:; as nothing before thee: verily every man at his hest state is altogctber vanity." (Psalm 39: 5) Onp should, therefore, not be unduly concerned uhout his health and male a religion ont of his eating and drinking. "For the kingdom of God is not meat and <lrink."-Romans 14: 17.
However, liy avoiding tile exreSHive reveling of ihj:-; ulU, wicked world under Satan's rule and by Jiving a life in harmony with the righteous precepts of the Creator, yon may enjoy length of days now, and eventually, in the New World, yon may he among thoRe that attain life eternal with perfection of body and mind.
Monarchs of the High Sierras
MONARCHS must possess outstanding virtues if they are to be looked up to and respecteCi by others. In breeding they must be blue-bloods: in power they must possess great strength; in splendor and glory they must be magnificent. If they have these qualities, with an absence of vanity, and if they glorify their Creator, then they are honored and respected by lovers of righteousness. Personalizing the Sequoias or Big Trees fmmd on the western slopes of the Sierra Nevada range in central California, it may he truly said of them that they are monarchs endowed with these virtues.
These monarchs of the lofty Sierra realm are not to be confused with their honorable cousins, the Redwoods, who rule over the coastal regions of northern California. At one time there were forty-five different species of this royal family, but now there are only these bvo survivors:the Seqtwia sempervirens, the ''Redwoods" found on the coast, and the Seqtw i a. gig ant ea) the "Big TreesJ' fomid In the High Sierras.
The common mistake of the uninformed in referring to both of these species as "redwoods" is probably because the wood of each is pink when first cnt and upon exposure turns to a reddish brown. There is, however, a greater dif-ferenre between the Sequoias tlian there is between sugar pines and yellow pines. Not only in appearance, hut also in their manner of reproduction and in tlieir habitat, the Big Trees differ from the Redwoods.
The Redwoods cover a strip along the seacoast, rarely more than 20 miles wide, running some 500 miles in length from the mountains of Santa Lucia in Monterey county, California, to Curry county iu Oregon. The Big Trees are fonnd only on the western slopes of the Sierras extending some 250 miles, between 4,000 and 8,000 feet elevation. The coastal Redwoods stand among a dense undergrowth of fern, azalea and uxaijs., and their heads are often dampened by the fog hanks tliat rOU in from the Japanese current. The Big Trees, on the other hand, have their feet covej^ed over many months of the yeat with deep snow while their heads enjoy the bright sunshine of the Sienas. The Redwoods occur in heavy forest stands: the Big Trees, in isolated groves. In manner of reproduction the coastal Redwoods differ from Big Trees in that they will sprout from stumps and roots as well as from seeds, whereas the J3jg Trees will onlv reproduce from seed:
But the greatest Ui.f-fert-oce between the two species is in their ap-pearanee. The coastal Redwood is taller and more graceful, while the Big Tret- is more massive and majestic, and more like a true monarch. Or as one writer said, with apologies to Kipling: "The Redwood she's a lady, while the Big Tree he's a man.” rhere is, then, as much difference Lehween the two as there is between a queen and a king. Both are great; both are of royal blood; both are of Secpioia liieo.ge. Therefore, to use adjectives aud superlatives intelligently in comparing one with the other a person must not be content to walk only among the eoasto.l Redwoods but must drive along the Redwood Highway, must plunge into the Sequoia National Park, must stand beneath the majestic monarchs iii the Congress Group. Not until then do words like "magnificent” speak their real meaning.
Take a Closer Look at These Monarchs
In driving along the Sierra highways the visitor notices that tJicse Big Trees are sometimes down in the meadows, at other times they stand out as sentinels overlooking a headland of granite. Sometimes they group together by themselves, at other times (which is most of the time) they tower above other trees, pines and firs and cedars, like mighty giants of the forest.
The younger of the Big Trees, fifty to two hundred years old, are graceful and well-sltaped with a sharp-pointed crest. But the older ones have a rounded top or clubbed appearance. Big Trees are evergreens having the characteristic needles, which fall off after three or four yeai’s. The coloT of these needles varies with the age of the tree. The younger trees have a bluish-green foliage, but with age the foliage green takes on a metallic brilliance that makes them outstanding among the conifers.
The bark on these great trees reaches a thickness of more thnn two feet. Instead of being hard. and tough as would be expected with trees this size, the bark of the Big Trees is soft and spongy, and because it is spongy it weighs only •five to seven pounds per cubic foot. This hark is very fire-resistant, resembling asbestos, and it is also highly repellant to insects, due to its high content of tannin.
The wood in the heart of the kingly Sequoia resemhlef: its bark in that it too is rather porous. The green wood full of moisture weighs four to six pounds per board foot, to compare with its weight of only a half a pound when dry. It is also a very brittle wood, not elastic and tough, like pine and fir; and when cut down these Big Trees usually splinter and shatter badly, because of theh-brittleness.
The Largest Living Thing
A hundred years ago, when reports were circulating that trees more than twice the diameter of the coastal Redwoods were growing in the Sierras people wonld not believe it. ''hnpossible !” they said, for a tree to grow 30 feet in diameter and 300 feet in height. Not* withotanding the fact that the coastal Redwoodst and perhaps the Australian Eucalyptus, are taller, and the banyan of the tropics, with its rooted branches and vines, sjHeads out over an acre of ground, or the fact that the Oaxaca cypress of Mexico has a greater spread of branches, or the ipil and narna of the Philippines have 40-foot wmgeil buttresses on tlieir tnujks—notwithstanding all these blue ribbons, yet, without question, there are no trees, nor any other living thing on this globe, that can compare with the Big Trees in sheer bulk and total weight and mass.
TJje largest of these trees, called the General Sherman, towers to n height of 273.9 feet. Its greatest diameter is 37.3 feet, while its mean diameter at the base is 32.7 feet, and even at a height of 100 feet its diameter is 18.7 feet; and this can be compared with the coastal Redwoods, which have a diameter at the base of only 16 or 17 feet.. The largest branch of the General Sherman is 7.3 feet in diameter, tuid that is 130 feet from the ground. And what do you think a tree like that weighs? How many'hnn-dreds of tons would that living organic
substance weigh? 'the conservative estimate is that it weighs over twelve million pounds, or 6,167 tons! Such a tree would provide lumber sufficient for 150 five-room houses. In the trunk alone there is enough lumber to fill 280 freight cars.
It is hard to picture how big this tree really is, but as a help to the imagination go out o.n your fTont lawn and draw a circle having a diameter of 32 feet. Then stand at the edge of tlmt circle and imagine that you are looking up to the top of a 30-story building. li you can comprehend really how big such a tree as that is, then you tmdcrstnnd why the Big Trees are worthy Monarchs of the Sierras.
The Toot system of these Sierra rulers, that gives them poise and balance as they stanU ltead and sbonlden; above the other trees, is in proportion with their torso size-. The main lateral roots, which attain a diameter of 18 inches, radiate out from the base of the tree a distance of approximately two-thirds the height of the tree. That means that if a Big Tree is 300 feet ii stature it has au elaborate network of lateral roots spreading out over a circle 400 feet iu diameter, or covering an area of two to tlnee acres, thus firmly anchoring its 6,000 tons and permitting it to withstand gales and storms for thousands of years.
The Oldest Living Thing
The guessing game on how old the General Sherman is. the largest tree in the world, lms been played for many years. Size alone is no indication of a Big Tree's age. It is known that a tree may struggle along for many centuries until its roots reach out to richer soil, when it will begin te> grow much more rapidly, even snYpassing in size nmch older trees. There is therefore only one way of accurately determining the age of a tree, and that is by cutting it down and counting its annual rings.
.Judge Walter Fry, who lived 40 years among the Big Trees, one time counted NOVEMBER 8, 19.46 the rings of a Big Tree that had a diameter of only 26.5 feetJ arJd found that it was 31126 years old. John Muir, the .American naturalist, said that he once found a tree that was 4,000 years old. Based upon these actual counts the estimates are tltat trees like the Grizzly Giant, the General Sherman, the General Grant and the Boole are t.t least 3,500 years of age, while these trees and others, ike the President, Abe Lincoln, and George Washington, all over 30 feet in diameter, may be centuries older.
If only these annual rings would talk like the grooves of a phonograph record, what a story they coiild tell! Take John Muir's 4,000-year-old tree for an example. Before Abraham, that ancient man of faith, was born that Big Tree was already several years old. VYhen God made His covenant with Abraham that tree was perhaps a hundred feet high. \i\Then the nriglity armies of Egypt, the first world power, were drowned like rats in the Red sea that lofty tree on the heights of the Sierras stood erect with head and shoulders more than 200 feet above the ground. VVhen Rome, the city that is fah;e]y labeled “eternal", was first born, in 753 B. C., the Big Tree was then over 1,300 years old.
At the age of 1,300 years that tree did not die, but Jived a thousand years more to see tJie begetta.l of Catholicism by Constantine in 325 A. D. After Charlemagne was crowned by the pope as king of the so-called ‘‘Holy Roman Empire", A. D. 800, tliat glorious tree in the Sierras continued to live anotber thousand years to see the complete uprooting of the chnrcb-state rule of Europe. And when that ancient tree was cut clown by men a few years ago, at the age of 4,000, it was only in its prime of life.
When it is considered that there are Big Trees now living that may be even older than this 4,000-year-old one that was cut down, it makes one wonder to what such longevity is attributed. One factor is the resistance that Big Trees have to insects and disease. Another factor is their asbestos type of bark that makes them resistant to fires. the most deadly enemy of forest trees, except man. Even when nine-tenths of their bark is charred tlii'ongh, and two hundred feet of their inwards burned out, leaving a hollow sliell, still they will Jive and even make an effort to heal over the damaged parts. Their root system, too, gives them the ability to survive long periods of drought.
Their most destructive enemy, and one that was not restrained until he Jiacl destroyed many thousands of these valuable trees, is man. It was in the J 830's that tJie white man 1hst took notice of these giants among giants. Thereafter for fifty years he ruthlessly destroyed them with axe, saw, and dynamite, until public opinion and spirited individuals were aroused to hedge in and preserve the remnant, about 25 percent, of the vanishing race of Sequoias.
The fossil remains of these trees tell of the time when dinosaurs roamed among them and giant reptiles enjoyed theh shade. TJie growing trees still standing today on the slopes or the Sierras also give powerful testimony of things etemnl. Is it any wonder, then, that Jehovah God, when He caused His •Word, the Bible, to he written in a language that men could understand, chose the evergreen to represent immortality?
These evergreen Sequoias, the largest and oldest living tilings on earth, are creation's best example of how creatures, having everlasting life, will continue to live on earth throughout the centuries following the battle of Anna-geddon, giving praise to their Creator. Believe this, and some day, shortly, you may see yonr children and your children^ children playing with the cubs of lions and hears beneath these mighty monarchs of the Sierras.
Co-operation of Moth and Yucca
THE members of the Wbipple exploring expedition suw this plnnt as they entered Snn Bernardino valley in 1854, when surveying a milroad route in Sont.hern California. Shown a specimen of it, the botanists saitl that it was a new one t.o them; l!Q th(!Y classified it with the Yucca fumily nnd named it nfter the ex}JI:ltlition. Yiii‘(‘a Whipple/, commonly kmm"l1 tUI “Lord's Cuutlle", "Spanish Bayonet,'' or just "Yucca", is au interesting plaut in more than ont' wAy. For several years it remains a rather unathmetive and even threatening individual, whnt with its semispherica! clump of long duggpr-likt> lt>aves. Then it s suddenly seized w:with the urge to conmnnd favorable public uttf.'ntion. Out of its foreboding clump of "hnyoncts’’ a single stnlk shoot-s skywar:d with such zeal that it sometimes mounts nioi’e than a foot n day, until it rencht>S a height of twelve to fifteen. ft>et. From the upper three to six feet: of' this stalk blooms un immensE' cluster of most strikingly heautiful creimy-white bell-shaped flowers of charming delicacy.
The most marvelous thing about the Yuceu is its co-operation witJi the pronuba moth iu teprodnetiun. A fewale muth visits llie flower, roll,; a hall
of pollen bigger tban its head, carries it to nnuthpr flower, punctures the flower's oviry recep-tncle, luys four or Ova eggs therein, and •wiuds up hi‘i‘ fumily affairs by pushing her wad of pollen tlown into the flower's stigmatic tube, to rertili.zl! oni’ hundred or two Jnmdred seeds. The larvne upou hatching f<‘ed npon part of the seeds, till they enter their cocoon stuge. The remainder of the seeds scatter to become Yuccas. One caunot exist. without. the other.
V7ORD IS TRUt
Born Again, from Above
EVERY human creature for the past nineteen cenhiries was begotten of man, but only those who became consecrated Christians of a gen uine kind have been begotten or horn again, from ubove, that is to say, from God the Father. Even while tliey are yet in the tle!:lh and have not yet come into heavenly glory, those who a re begotten or God by His spirit are spoken of as “born or (lod". In fact, in the English Bible translation, the two expressions ''begotten of God'' aud ••born of God" are used intPrcUaugp-ably. At 1 John 5:18 we read: ••We know that whosoever is born of Gorl sinneth not; but he that is begotten of God kepp-eth himself, and that wicked one toneh-eth him not." The two expressions mean one and the same thing, because they translate the same Greek words in tlte original Bible text. Also 1 John 5:l reads : “Whosoever believeth that Jesus is the Christ is born of God: and everyone that loveth him that begnt lovctli Itim also that is begotten of him." Here agnin, born and begotten transJate th« santP Greek word. To beget means to cause f o be; to produce (a child like the parent); to get (with child). In the Bihle, it means, not the conception, but the bringing forth of the child to life. Ill tltis scm;e Matthew 1:2 reads: "A.lwaha.m In-get Isaac: and Isaac he gat Jacob; and .J acoh begat J ndns and his brethren." Luke 1 : 57 reads: “Xow Elisabeth's full time canH’ that she shoikl be delivered; and she brought forth a son." There “begat” and ••brought forth" translate the idfnti-ca) word in Oreek.
NOVEMBER 8, 1946
Biblically, then. beget does not refer to the time of conception of a child or off::;pi*ing in the womb. Matthew 1:20 Rets fortl the angel's words to Mary's fiance: ".Joseph, descendant of David, do not fear to take Mary, your wife, to youl' home, for it is through the influence of the holy spirit that she is to become a mother.'' (An Amer. Tranis.) Therefore, one who is “begotten of God" is not to Ue Viewed as being in a state o f gestation like an unborn human child. but is "born of Uod" and is under full responsibility to Ood for his conduct. By his course of life as a begotten son of God he must choose either eternal life or eternal death. To this effect 1 John J: 4 reads: '•Because all that has been begotten by God overcomes the world; nnc.l this is that victory which overcomes the world,—onr faith." (The Emphatic D iaglofl) li'aitlt leads to eternal life.
\Ve should expect that, as hi Jesus’ case, \\'hen a son ol' Uocl is brought forth or begotten, the Father Jehovah God would make some acknowledgment to the begotten son, and that before others. Whether you think of going to heaven or not, it is very Pnlightening to examine how, since Jesms' death, human creatures have been privileged to become ::;ons of God unto transcendent glory in lieaven. Those wlw have been tauglt by religion that 1hey are dw^ to go to heaven nt death should examine themselves tu determine whether they are begotten of God anU are thereby sons of Hod.
Jesus' words in a discussion with the Jewish ruler Nicodemus are authoritative upon the suh.ieet. “Jesus answered and said unto him, Verily, verily, I sny 17 unto thee, Except a man bE‘ born again, he cannot see the kingdom of God. Nicodemus saith unto him, How can a man be born when he is old! can lie enter the second tinw into his mother's womb, and be horn ? Jestis answered, VerUy, verily, I say unto thee, Except a man be born of water and of the spirit, he caii-not enter into tlw kingdom of Gotl. That which is born of the fie::;li is flesh; and that which is born of the spirit is spirit. Marvel not that I said unto thee, Ye must be born again. The wind bloweth where it listeth, and tliou hearest the sound thereof, but canst not tt?ll whence it cometh, and whither it goeth: so is every one that is born of the spirit."—John 3: 3-8.
It is unreasonable to take J esusJ words to meau that the person who ltas been begotten of G otl is like an nncertain wind, coming and going and doing things by .fits and starts aml moYing hither and yon nceordint;: to a pastii.ug inclination and hence being undependable and unreliable in general. Some religionists interpret Jesus' words so. Ouly in the light of other scriptures can His words be grasped ::1ensiLly and hence rightly. Wind if; air in motion and has n starting point of movement aud a point where it subsides. Jeremiah 51 : 16 says concerning Jehovah God: "When he uttereth his voice, there is a tumult of waters in the heavens, and he causetli the vapors to ascend from the ends of the earth: he maketli lightnings for the rain, and bringeth forth the wind out of his treasuries." (Am. Stan, Ver.) Psalm 135: 7 repeats the statement: "He briugeth the wind out of his treasuries/' Psalm 148: 7, 8 commands: ''Praise the Lorm from the earth, ye dragons, and all deeps : fire, and hail; snow, and vapours; stormy wind fulfilling his word." Oene:-;is 8: 1 says : "God made a wind to pass over the earth."
As the •wind is brought forth out of the treasuries of G-od and is according to His word, so the one begotten of God and who enters the Kingdom is like the wind in having God as his source. But the origin with God of such begotten one cannot be discerned by the natural man, whose eyes cannot see the wind that blows about this earth, but such origin is unseen to his eyes. As the natural man hears the soiuid of the passing wind, so he may observe the visible effects of the action of God's spirit upon the one begotten of God, but cannot appreciate their cause, neither can lte discern what is the heavenly destination toward which the spirit-begotten one is moving. Jesus called this fact to the attention of the natural-minded religious enemies, saying: "Though I hear record of myself, yet my record is true: for I know whence I came, and whither I go; but ye cannot tell whence I come, and whlther I go. [Why noB] Ye judge after the flesh; I judge no man [thus] . . . .If God were your Father, ye would love me: for I proceeded forth and came from God; neither came I ef myself, but he sent me.v (John 8:14, 15, 42; see also John 9: 29-33; 13 : 3; 16: 27, 38) The begotten one's new life, therefore, is not a question of re-entering a visible mother's womb and then being known to issue forth again therefrom and thereafter going the way of the rest of humanity. Unless one is born of God in His spiritual organization, which is higher than man, one cannot eventually see and enter into the heavenly kingdom.—Luke 24; John 20; Acts 1: 1-11.
So, to return to Jesus' words that ex-vlain by what means it is that the begetting or being born again is accomplished: "'Indeed I assure thee, if any one be not born from above, he cannot see the kingdom o£ God. . . . Truly jndeed I say to thee, if any one be not born of water and spirit, he cannot enter tJie kingdom of God." (John 3:3,5, Diaglott) It is selfevident tliat the one gaining entrance into the Kingdom must be born again, for “God is a Spirit" and the Kingdom is heavenly. Furthermore, to begin with, the faet applies to such one, namely: "That which is horn of the flesh is flesh." Such ereahue originally wns begotten or born from beneath, and it is now nec-essarv for the creature to he horn "from above'', that is to say, from heaven or from God, who is above all. Only God, who is Spirit, can cause spirit creatures to be brought forth; "that wliicli is born of the spirit is spirit/' OnJy God can make it possible that a creature here on earth should get in line to become a $pirit creature in the spirit realm of the invisible liea vens. Hence only the faithful and true church of God under Christ see and enter into the kingdom of God. Those faithful human creahnes who do not gain life iu heaven as members of the church or Kingdom rlass have only an earthly destiny set before them in God's Word, namely, everlasting life on earth under the reign of God's kingdom.
Slippery Jesuit History
THIHTY-THREE black-robed delegates met in secret session at Rome on September J5 mid elected Jolm Baptist Janssens of Belgium to be the twenty-seventh general of the Jesuits.
The founder of the Jesuit order was a Spanish nobleman named Don liiigo (Ignatius) of Loyola. lu the course of time (May 20, 1521} Loyola was wounded, and as he lay tossing on his bed wild, hallucinations pnssed through his feverish mind. He had a vision of himself leading the forces of his church against the forces of darkness which he thought was the Heformatimi.
Upon recovery, not mentally but physically, he set about to organize a secret society that would erusade against all enemies of Catholicism. Pope Pnnl endorsed the militant sclieme in 1540. Sixteen years later Loyola died, hut the Jesuit order lived on because “the pope, the bishops, and those monarchs who were opposed to tLe Refomiation recognized the .Jesuits as the most efficient organization for saving the old Church". (M'Clintock & Strong Cyclopedia)
Not only did the Jesuits Hght outside opposition to the church by fanning the Inquisition flames, but where there was discontent and jealousy witliin the ranks of the Catholic organization the J esuits were the sharp steel used to cut it out.
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