The Pyramids and Temples of Gizeh (1883)
Download: PDF — The Pyramids and Temples of Gizeh (1883)
Over dit boek
Dit is een digitale kopie van een boek dat al generaties lang op bibliotheekplanken heeft gestaan, maar nu zorgvuldig is gescand door Google. Dat doen we omdat we alle boeken ter wereld online beschikbaar willen maken.
Dit boek is zo oud dat het auteursrecht erop is verlopen, zodat het boek nu deel uitmaakt van het publieke domein. Een boek dat tot het publieke domein behoort, is een boek dat nooit onder het auteursrecht is gevallen, of waarvan de wettelijke auteursrechttermijn is verlopen. Het kan per land verschillen of een boek tot het publieke domein behoort. Boeken in het publieke domein zijn een stem uit het verleden. Ze vormen een bron van geschiedenis, cultuur en kennis die anders moeilijk te verkrijgen zou zijn.
Aantekeningen, opmerkingen en andere kanttekeningen die in het origineel stonden, worden weergegeven in dit bestand, als herinnering aan de lange reis die het boek heeft gemaakt van uitgever naar bibliotheek, en uiteindelijk naar u.
Richtlijnen voor gebruik
Google werkt samen met bibliotheken om materiaal uit het publieke domein te digitaliseren, zodat het voor iedereen beschikbaar wordt. Boeken uit het publieke domein behoren toe aan het publiek; wij bewaren ze alleen. Dit is echter een kostbaar proces. Om deze dienst te kunnen blijven leveren, hebben we maatregelen genomen om misbruik door commerciële partijen te voorkomen, zoals het plaatsen van technische beperkingen op automatisch zoeken.
Verder vragen we u het volgende:
Gebruik de bestanden alleen voor niet-commerciële doeleinden We hebben Zoeken naar boeken met Google ontworpen voor gebruik door individuen. We vragen u deze bestanden alleen te gebruiken voor persoonlijke en niet-commerciële doeleinden.
Voer geen geautomatiseerde zoekopdrachten uit Stuur geen geautomatiseerde zoekopdrachten naar het systeem van Google. Als u onderzoek doet naar computervertalingen, optische tekenherkening of andere wetenschapsgebieden waarbij u toegang nodig heeft tot grote hoeveelheden tekst, kunt u contact met ons opnemen. We raden u aan hiervoor materiaal uit het publieke domein te gebruiken, en kunnen u misschien hiermee vandienst zijn.
Laat de eigendomsverklaring staan Het "watermerk" van Google dat u onder aan elk bestand ziet, dient om mensen informatie over het project te geven, en ze te helpen extra materiaal te vinden met Zoeken naar boeken met Google. Verwijder dit watermerk niet.
Houd u aan de wet Wat u ook doet, houd er rekening mee dat u er zelf verantwoordelijk voor bent dat alles wat u doet legaal is. U kunt er niet van uitgaan dat wanneer een werk beschikbaar lijkt te zijn voor het publieke domein in de Verenigde Staten, het ook publiek domein is voor gebruikers in andere landen. Of er nog auteursrecht op een boek rust, verschilt per land. We kunnen u niet vertellen wat u in uw geval met een bepaald boek mag doen. Neem niet zomaar aan dat u een boek overal ter wereld op allerlei manieren kunt gebruiken, wanneer het eenmaal in Zoeken naar boeken met Google staat. De wettelijke aansprakelijkheid voor auteursrechten is behoorlijk streng.
Informatie over Zoeken naar boeken met Google
Het doel van Google is om alle informatie wereldwijd toegankelijk en bruikbaar te maken. Zoeken naar boeken met Google helpt lezers boeken uit allerlei landen te ontdekken, en helpt auteurs en uitgevers om een nieuw leespubliek te bereiken. U kunt de volledige tekst van dit boek doorzoeken op het web via http://books.google.com Google
This is a digital copy of a book that was preserved for generations on library shelves before it was carefully scanned by Google as part of a project to make the world's books discoverable online.
It has survived long enough for the copyright to expire and the book to enter the public domain. A public domain book is one that was never subject to copyright or whose legal copyright term has expired. Whether a book is in the public domain may vary country to country. Public domain books are our gateways to the past, representing a wealth of history, culture and knowledge that's often difficult to discover.
Marks, notations and other marginalia present in the original volume will appear in this file - a reminder of this book's long journey from the publisher to a library and finally to you.
Usage guidelines
Google is proud to partner with libraries to digitize public domain materials and make them widely accessible. Public domain books belong to the public and we are merely their custodians. Nevertheless, this work is expensive, so in order to keep providing this resource, we have taken steps to prevent abuse by commercial parties, including placing technical restrictions on automated querying.
We also ask that you:
Make non-commercial use of the files We designed Google Book Search for use by individuals, and we request that you use these files for personal, non-commercial purposes.
Refrain from automated querying Do not send automated queries of any sort to Google's system: If you are conducting research on machine translation, optical character recognition or other areas where access to a large amount of text is helpful, please contact us. We encourage the use of public domain materials for these purposes and may be able to help.
Maintain attribution The Google "watermark" you see on each file is essential for informing people about this project and helping them find additional materials through Google Book Search. Please do not remove it.
Keep it legal Whatever your use, remember that you are responsible for ensuring that what you are doing is legal. Do not assume that just because we believe a book is in the public domain for users in the United States, that the work is also in the public domain for users in other countries. Whether a book is still in copyright varies from country to country, and we can't offer guidance on whether any specific use of any specific book is allowed. Please do not assume that a book's appearance in Google Book Search means it can be used in any manner anywhere in the world. Copyright infringement liability can be quite severe.
Google's mission is to organize the world's information and to make it universally accessible and useful. Google Book Search helps readers discover the world's books while helping authors and publishers reach new audiences. You can search through the full text of this book on the web at http://books.google.com/
221 h. 193.
THE PYRAMIDS AND TEMPLES OF GIZEH.
The Kell & n Flora c Loth 4. Furst Coventry Garden
THE NINE PYRAMIDS OF GIZEH.
THE
PYRAMIDS AND TEMPLES OF GIZEH.
BY
W. M. FLINDERS PETRIE, Author of "Inductive Metrology," "Stonehenge," &c.
LONDON· FIELD & TUER, YE LEADENHALLE PRESSE; SIMPKIN, MARSHALL & CO., STATIONERS' HALL COURT; HAMILTON, ADAMS & CO., PATERNOSTER ROW. NEW YORK: SCRIBNER & WELFORD, 743, BROADWAY.
h. 193.
FIELD & TUER,
VE LEADENHALLE PRESSE, E.C.
T 3,224.
BODLEIAN LIBRARY
19 SEP 83
OXFORD.
PUBLISHED WITH THE ASSISTANCE OF A VOTE OF ONE HUNDRED POUNDS
FROM THE GOVERNMENT-GRANT COMMITTEE OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
1883.
Digitized by Google CONTENTS.
INTRODUCTION.
1 Methods employed ... xiii
2 Scope of the present work ... xiv
3 Use of expressions ... xv
CHAP. I.—OBJECTS AND MEANS.
4 Need of fresh measurements ... 1
5 Outline of work demanded ... 3
6 Stay at Gizeh ... 6
7 Assistance obtained ... 7
CHAP. II.—INSTRUMENTS.
8 List of instruments ... 10
9 Details of lineal instruments ... 11
10 Details of angular instruments ... 15
CHAP. III.—METHODS OF MEASUREMENT.
11 Lineal measures ... 22
12 Angular measures ... 23
CHAP. IV.—EXCAVATIONS.
13 Inside Great Pyramid ... 27
14 Casing, &c., of Great Pyramid ... 29
15 Second Pyramid, casing, &c. ... 30
16 Third Pyramid, casing, &c. ... 31
17 Workmen ... ... ... 32
SECTION.
CHAP. V.—CO-ORDINATES.
18 Station marks ... ... ... 34
19 Table of co-ordinates ... ... 34
CHAP. VI.—OUTSIDE OF GREAT PYRAMID.
20 Relation of sockets to casing ... 37
21 Length of sides of casing ... 39
22 Levels and positions of sockets ... 40
23 Levels up the Pyramid ... 41
24 Angle of the Pyramid ... 42
25 Form of top of the Pyramid ... 43
26 Casing of the Pyramid ... 43
27 Pavement of the Pyramid ... 44
28 Basalt pavement ... ... ... 46
29 Rock trenches ... ... ... 47
30 Trial passages ... ... ... 50
31 Connection of inside and outside ... 51
32 Original position of entrance ... 51
33 Mouths of air-channels ... ... ... 52
34 Blocks above entrance ... ... ... 53
CHAP VII.—INSIDE OF GREAT PYRAMID.
35 Entrance passage, length ... 55
36 ” ” azimuth and angle... 58
37 Subterranean chamber, &c. ... ... 59
38 Ascending passage, length ... 61
39 ” ” azimuth and angle... 62
40 Passage to Queen’s Chamber ... 69
41 Queen’s Chamber, plan ... ... ... 66
42 ” ” height ... ... ... 67
43 ” ” niche ... ... ... 68
44 ” ” channels ... ... ... 70 CONTENTS.
45 Gallery, length and angles ... 71
46 „ roof and walls ... 72
47 Antechamber and passages ... 75
48 „ dimensions ... 76
49 „ details of walls ... 77
50 „ granite leaf ... 78
51 King's Chamber, walls ... 79
52 „ „ plan ... 80
53 „ „ roof ... 81
54 „ „ floor ... 82
55 „ „ working ... 82
56 „ „ channels ... 83
57 Coffer, character ... 84
58 „ position ... 84
59 „ offsets to surfaces ... 85
60 „ calipering ... 89
61 „ volumes ... 90
62 Chambers of construction ... 91
63 „ „ details ... 92
64 Summary of interior positions ... 95
CHAP. VIII.—OUTSIDE OF SECOND PYRAMID.
65 Relation of rock to casing ... 96
66 Length of sides of casing ... 97
67 Angle of Pyramid, and height ... 97
68 Courses of the Pyramid ... 98
69 Pavement ... ... ... ... 99
70 Levelled site ... ... ... 99
71 Peribolus walls ... ... ... 100
72 Barracks of workmen ... ... 101
CHAP. IX.—INSIDE OF SECOND PYRAMID.
73 Entrance passage... ... ... ... 104
74 Horizontal passage ... ... ... 104
75 Great chamber ... ... ... 105
76 Coffer, character ... ... ... 106
77 ,, dimensions ... ... ... 107
78 Lower chamber, and passage ... ... 108
CHAP. X.—OUTSIDE OF THIRD PYRAMID.
79 Nature of the casing ... ... ... 110
80 Length of the sides .. .. ... 111
SECTION PAGE
81 Angle and height of Pyramid ... ... 112
82 Courses ... ... ... ... ... ... 112
83 Peribolus walls and temple ... ... 114
CHAP. XI.—INSIDE OF THIRD PYRAMID.
84 Entrance passage... ... ... 117
85 First chamber ... ... ... 117
86 Second chamber ... ... ... 118
87 Granite chamber ... ... ... 118
88 Loculus chamber ... ... ... 119
89 Original entrance passage ... ... 120
CHAP. XII.—LESSER PYRAMIDS OF GIZEH.
90 Northern small Pyramid ... ... 121
91 Middle small Pyramid ... ... ... 123
CHAP. XIII.—POSITIONS AND ORIENTATION
OF THE PYRAMIDS.
92 Relative positions of Pyramids ... 125
93 Orientation of large Pyramids... ... 125
94 Change of earth's axis ... ... ... 126
CHAP. XIV.—THE GRANITE TEMPLE, &C.
95 Position of Granite Temple ... ... 128
96 Description of Temple ... ... ... 129
97 Workmanship of Temple ... ... ... 132
98 Original appearance of Temple ... 133
99 Date of Temple ... ... ... ... 133
100 Constructions near Great Pyramid ... 134
101 Basalt and diorite casings ... ... 135
102 Diorite at Gizeh... ... ... ... 136
CHAP. XV.—TOMBS OF GIZEH.
103 Angles of Mastabas ... ... ... 138
104 Campbell's tomb ... ... ... 138
CHAP. XVI.—NOTES ON OTHER PYRAMIDS.
105 Abu Roash, Pyramid of Men...ra ... 140
106 Sakkara, Pyramid of Pepi ... ... 142 CONTENTS.
SECTION. PAGE
107 Dahshur, Great Pyramid ... ... 144
108 Dahshur, South Pyramid ... ... 144
109 Dahshur , , door ... ... 145
110 Mastaba-Pyramids, Sakkara & Medum 146
CHAP. XVII.—HISTORICAL NOTES.
112 Men...ra of Abu Roash ... 151
113 Khufu and Khnumu-Khufu ... 152
114 Ratatef ... ... ... ... 152
115 Khafra ... ... ... ... 153
116 Menkaura, and the Third Pyramid ... 153
117 Brick Pyramids ... ... ... 155
118 Petukhanu's tablet of Khufu ... 156
119 Destruction of buildings ... 157
120 Accuracy of Greek historians ... 159
CHAP. XVIII.—ARCHITECTURAL IDEAS OF THE PYRAMID BUILDERS.
121 Angles of the Pyramids ... 162
122 The Accretion Theory of building ... 163
123 Application of it to the large Pyramids 165
124 Inapplicability of the theory ... 165
125 Plugging of the Pyramid passages ... 166
126 Doors of the Pyramids ... ... 167
127 Relative workmanship of Pyramids ... 169
128 Use of Plaster ... ... ... 171
CHAP. XIX.—MECHANICAL METHODS OF THE PYRAMID BUILDERS.
129 Nature of tools employed on hard stone 173
130 Examples of sawing ... ... 174
131 Examples of tubular drilling ... 175
132 Examples of turning ... ... 176
129 Nature of tools employed on hard stone 173
130 Examples of sawing ... ... ... 174
131 Examples of tubular drilling ... ... 175
132 Examples of turning ... ... ... 176
133 Rate of working ... ... ... 177
134 Tools not actually found ... ... 177
135 References on other details ... ... 177
CHAP. XX.—VALUES OF THE CUBIT AND DIGIT.
136 The cubit in the Great Pyramid ... 178
137 The cubit in other buildings ... ... 179
SECTION. PAGE
138 Divisions of lists in the tombs... ... 179
139 Decimal division of cubit ... ... 180
140 Values of the digit ... ... ... 180
141 Comparison with previous results ... 181
CHAP. XXI.—THEORIES COMPARED WITH FACTS.
142 The comparisons based on the facts ... 182
143 The Great Pyramid base ... ... 182
144 ” ” height ... ... 183
145 ” ” angle ... ... 184
146 ” ” courses ... ... 184
147 Rock trenches by Great Pyramid ... 185
148 Positions of the chambers ... ... 186
149 Lengths of the passages ... ... 187
150 Dimensions of the passages ... ... 189
151 Angles of the passages ... ... 190
152 Subterranean Chamber... ... 191
153 Queen's Chamber ... ... 191
154 Antechamber ... ... ... 193
155 King's Chamber ... ... ... 194
156 Coffer ... ... ... ... 195
157 Synopsis of Great Pyramid theories ... 198
158 The Tombic theory ... ... ... 200
159 Second Pyramid, outside ... ... 201
160 ” ” inside ... ... 202
161 ” ” coffer... ... 203
162 Third Pyramid ... ... ... 204
163 Comparison of previous surveys ... 205
CHAP. XXII.—HISTORY OF THE GREAT PYRAMID, AND ITS DESIGN.
164 Nature of the site ... ... ... 208
165 Source of the stone ... ... ... 209
166 Organization of the labour ... ... 210
167 Preparation of the site ... ... ... 211
168 Planning of the courses ... ... 212
169 Raising the stones ... ... ... 212
170 Tools and chips ... ... ... 212
171 Deterioration of the work ... ... 213
172 Plans altered ... ... ... ... 214
173 Closing of the Pyramid... ... ... 215
174 A second coffer ... ... ... ... 216
175 Violation of the Pyramid ... ... 217
176 Inscriptions on the Pyramid ... ... 217
177 Destruction of the Pyramid ... ... 219
178 Summary of probable theories ... 220 CONTENTS.
APPENDICES.
I.—ON THE ARRANGEMENT OF A TRIANGULATION.
179 Nature of survey of short distances ... 223
180 Distribution of the observations ... 223
181 Order of observations ... ... 224
II.—THE REJECTION OF DISCORDANT OBSERVATIONS.
182 Continual and occasional errors ... 226
183 Discrimination of occasional errors ... 227
184 Weighting observations by their divergence ... ... ... ... 228
185 Application of the law of distribution 228
186 Practical elimination of occasional errors ... ... ... ... 230
SECTION. PAGE
187 Probable error, a factor, not a term ... 231
188 Plus and minus errors always possible 232
189 Secondary probable errors ... ... 233
190 Applicability of approximate formulae 235
191 Testing the normal distribution ... 236
III.—GRAPHIC REDUCTION OF TRIANGULATION.
192 The need of a graphic method ... 238
193 Old and new methods of graphic reduction... ... ... ... ... 239
194 The practice of graphic reduction ... 239
195 Delineation of the traces ... ... 241
196 Accuracy in the present survey ... 241
197 Applicability of graphic reduction ... 243
INDEX ... ... ... ... ... ... 245 LIST OF PLATES.
FRONTISPIECE—THE NINE PYRAMIDS OF GIZEH, FROM THE SOUTH.
I. PLAN OF TRIANGULATION OF THE PYRAMIDS, ETC.
II. BASALT PAVEMENT AND TRENCHES, ON EAST OF GREAT PYRAMID.
III. ENDS OF THE ROCK TRENCHES; SECTION OF TRIAL PASSAGES.
IV. WALLS AND BARRACKS AROUND THE SECOND PYRAMID.
V. WALLS AROUND THE THIRD PYRAMID.
VI. PLAN OF THE GRANITE TEMPLE.
VII. SECTIONS OF THE, GREAT AND SECOND PYRAMIDS, AND MASTABAPYRAMIDS.
VIII. COURSES OF THE GREAT PYRAMID MASONRY.
IX. PASSAGES OF THE GREAT PYRAMID.
X. SOCKETS AND CASING OF GREAT PYRAMID.
XI. MOUTHS OF PASSAGES AND CHANNELS; AND CASING OF GREAT PYRAMID.
XII. CASING OF PYRAMIDS; BOSSES: DECORATION, ETC.
XIII. WALLS OF THE KING'S CHAMBER.
XIV. SPECIMENS OF SAWING, DRILLING, AND TURNING; FROM GIZEH, ETC.
XV. INSTRUMENTS EMPLOYED, OF NEW TYPES.
XVI. TRACES OF THE OBSERVATIONS, AROUND THE GREAT PYRAMID.
ERRATA.
Page 30 ... line 7 for oonsider ... read consider.
,, 38 ... ,, 1 ,, case ... ,, core.
,, 41 ... ,, 2 ,, othe thers ... ,, the others.
,, 41 ... ,, 43 ,, +· ... ,, +·1
,, 42 ... ,, 33 ,, 0·9 ... ,, '09
,, 43 ... ,, 13 ,, measurement ... ,, re-measurement.
,, 50 ... ,, 28 ,, '24' ... ,, 24'
,, 65 ... ,, 34 ,, ±3. ... ,, ±·3
,, 157 ... ,, 12 ,, dozen ... ,, dozens.
,, 212 ... ,, 1 ,, tweve ... ,, twelve.
,, 218 ... ,, 10 ,, Ibr ... ,, Ibn.
Plate xiv., fig. 7, the lithographer has drawn the lines wavy, whereas they really form a true spiral, as described p. 174, and in Anthropological Journal.
INTRODUCTION.
THE nature of the present work is such that perhaps few students will find interest in each part of it alike. The ends and the means appeal to separate classes: the antiquarian, whose are the ends, will look askance at the means, involving co-ordinates, probable errors, and arguments based on purely mechanical considerations; the surveyor and geodetist, whose are the means, will scarcely care for their application to such remote times; the practical man who may follow the instrumental details, may consider the discussion of historical problems to be outside his province; while only those familiar with mechanical work will fully realize the questions of workmanship and tools here explained.
An investigation thus based on such different subjects is not only at a disadvantage in its reception, but also in its production. And if in one part or another, specialists may object to some result or suggestion, the plea must be the difficulty of making certain how much is known, and what is believed, on subjects so far apart and so much debated.
The combination of two apparently distinct subjects, is often most fertile in results; and the mathematical and mechanical study of antiquities promises a full measure of success. It is sometimes said, or supposed, that it must be useless to apply accuracy to remains which are inaccurate; that fallacies are sure to result, and that the products of such a method rather originate with the modern investigator than express the design of the ancient constructor. But when we look to other branches of historical inquiry, we see how the most refined methods of research are eagerly followed: how philology does not confine itself to the philological ideas of the ancient writers, but analyzes their speech so as to see facts of which they were wholly unconscious; how chemistry does not study the chemical ideas, but the chemical processes and products of the ancients; how anthropology examines the bodies and customs of men to whom such inquiries were completely foreign. Hence there is nothing unprecedented, and nothing impracticable, in applying mathematical methods in the study of mechanical remains of ancient times, since the object is to get behind the workers, and to see not only their work, but their mistakes, their amounts of error, the limits of their ideas; in fine, to skirt the borders of their knowledge and abilities, so as to find their range by means of using more comprehensive methods.
Modern inquiry should never rest content with saying that anything was "exact;" but always show what error in fact or in work was tolerated by the ancient worker, and was considered by him as his allowable error.
The materials of the present volume have been selected from the results of two winters' work in Egypt. Many of the points that were examined, and some questions that occupied a considerable share of the time, have not been touched on here, as this account is limited to the buildings of the fourth dynasty at Gizeh, with such examples of later remains as were necessary for the discussion of the subject. All the inscriptions copied were sent over to Dr. Birch, who has published some in full, and extracted what seemed of interest in others; Dr. Weidemann has also had some of them; and they do not need, therefore, further attention on my part. Papers on other subjects, including the Domestic Remains, Brickwork, Pottery, and travellers' graffiti, each of which were examined with special reference to their periods, are in course of publication by the Royal Archæological Institute. The mechanical methods and tools employed by the Egyptians were discussed at the Anthropological Institute, and are more summarily noticed here. A large mass of accurate measurements of remains of various ages were collected; and these, when examined, will probably yield many examples of the cubits employed by the constructors. Of photographs, over five hundred were taken, on 1⁄4 size dry plates, mainly of architectural points, and to show typical features. Volumes of prints of these may be examined on application to me, and copies can be ordered from a London photographer. The lesser subjects being thus disposed of, this volume only treats of one place, and that only during one period, which was the main object of research. The mass of the actual numerical observations and reductions would be too bulky to publish, and also unnecessary; the details of the processes are, in fact, only given so far as may prove useful for comparison with the results obtained by other observers.
Though, in describing various features, reference has often been made to the publications of Colonel Howard Vyse* (for whom Mr. Perring, C.E., acted as superintendent), and of Professor C. Piazzi Smyth, yet it must not be supposed that this account professes at all to cover the same ground, and to give all the details that are to be found in those works. They are only referred to where necessary to connect or to explain particular points; and those volumes must be consulted by any one wishing to fully comprehend all that is known of the Pyramids. This work is, in fact, only supplementary to the previous descriptions,
$
"O p e r a t i o n s a t t h e P y r a m i d s," 3 vols. 1 8 4 0.
$
as giving fuller and more accurate information about the principal parts of the Pyramids, with just as much general account as may be necessary to make it intelligible, and to enable the reader to judge of the discussions and conclusions arrived at on the subject, without needing to refer to other works.
Colonel Vyse's volumes are most required for an account of the arrangements of the Second and smaller Pyramids, of the chambers in the Great Pyramid over the King's Chamber, of the negative results of excavations in the masonry, and of various mechanical details. Professor Smyth's vol. ii. is required for the measurements and description of the interior of the Great Pyramid. While the scope of the present account includes the more exact measurement of the whole of the Great Pyramid, of the outsides and chambers of the Second and Third Pyramids, of the Granite Temple, and of various lesser works; also the comparison of the details of some of the later Pyramids with those at Gizeh, and various conclusions, mainly based on mechanical grounds.
The reader's knowledge of the general popular information on the subject, has been taken for granted; as that the Pyramids of Gizeh belong to the first three kings of the fourth dynasty, called Khufu, Khafra, and Menkaura, by themselves, and Cheops, Chephren, and Mycerinus, by Greek-loving Englishmen; that their epoch is variously stated by chronologists as being in the third, fourth, or fifth millennium B.C.; that the buildings are in their bulk composed of blocks of limestone, such as is found in the neighbouring districts; that the granite used in parts of the insides and outsides was brought from Syene, now Assouan; and that the buildings were erected near the edge of the limestone desert, bordering the west side of the Nile valley, about 150 feet above the inundated plain, and about 8 miles from the modern Cairo.
One or two technical usages should be defined here. All measures stated in this volume are in Imperial British inches, unless expressed otherwise; and it has not been thought necessary to repeat this every time an amount is stated ; so that in all such cases inches must be understood as the medium of description. Azimuths, wherever stated, are written + or - , referring to positive or negative rotation, i.e., to E. or to W., from the North point as zero. Thus, azimuth - 5′ which often occurs, means 5′ west of north. Where the deviation of a line running east and west is stated to be only a few minutes + or - , it, of course, refers to its normal or perpendicular, as being that amount from true north.
The probable error of all important measurements is stated with the sign ± prefixed to it as usual. A full description of this will be found in any modern treatise on probabilities; and a brief account of it was given in "Inductive Metrology," pp. 24-30. Some technical details about it will be found here in the Appendix on "The Rejection of Erroneous Observations"; and I will only add a short definition of it as follows: The probable error is an amount on each side of the stated mean, within the limits of which there is as much chance of the truth lying, as beyond it; i.e., it is 1 in 2 that the true result is not further from the stated mean than the amount of the probable error.
Or, if any one prefers to regard the limits beyond which it is practically impossible for the true result to be, it is 22 to 1 against the truth being 3 times the amount of the probable error from the mean, 144 to 1 against its being 4 times, or 1,380 to 1 against its being as far as 5 times the amount of the probable error from the mean result stated. Thus, any extent of improbability that any one may choose to regard as practical impossibility, they may select; and remember that 4 or 5 times the probable error will mean to them the limit of possibility. Practically, it is best to state it as it always is stated, as the amount of variation which there is an equal chance of the truth exceeding or not; and any one can then consider what improbability there is in any case on hand, of the truth differing from the statement to any given extent.
It should be mentioned that the plans are all photolithographed from my drawings, in order to avoid inaccuracy or errors of copying; and thence comes any lack of technical style observable in the lettering.
As to the results of the whole investigation, perhaps many theorists will agree with an American, who was a warm believer in Pyramid theories when he came to Gizeh. I had the pleasure of his company there for a couple of days, and at our last meal together he said to me in a saddened tone,—"Well, sir! I feel as if I had been to a funeral." By all means let the old theories have a decent burial; though we should take care that in our haste none of the wounded ones are buried alive.
THE PYRAMIDS AND TEMPLES OF GIZEH.
CHAPTER I.
OBJECTS AND MEANS.
THE small piece of desert plateau opposite the village of Gizeh, though less than a mile across, may well claim to be the most remarkable piece of ground in the world. There may be seen the very beginning of architecture, the most enormous piles of building ever raised, the most accurate constructions known, the finest masonry, and the employment of the most ingenious tools; whilst among all the sculpture that we know, the largest figure—the Sphinx—and also the finest example of technical skill with artistic expression—the Statue of Khafra—both belong to Gizeh. We shall look in vain for a more wonderful assemblage than the vast masses of the Pyramids, the ruddy walls and pillars of the granite temple, the titanic head of the Sphinx, the hundreds of tombs, and the shattered outlines of causeways, pavements, and walls, that cover this earliest field of man's labours.
But these remains have an additional, though passing, interest in the present day, owing to the many attempts that have been made to theorise on the motives of their origin and construction. The Great Pyramid has lent its name as a sort of by-word for paradoxes; and, as moths to a candle, so are theorisers attracted to it. The very fact that the subject was so generally familiar, and yet so little was accurately known about it, made it the more enticing; there were plenty of descriptions from which to choose, and yet most of them were so hazy that their support could be claimed for many varying theories.
Here, then, was a field which called for the resources of the present time for its due investigation; a field in which measurement and research were greatly needed, and have now been largely rewarded by the disclosures of the skill of the ancients, and the mistakes of the moderns.
The labours of the French Expedition, of Colonel Howard Vyse, of the Prussian Expedition, and of Professor Smyth, in this field are so well known that it is unnecessary to refer to them, except to explain how it happens that any further work was still needed. Though the French were active explorers, they were far from realising the accuracy of ancient work; and they had no idea of testing the errors of the ancients by outdoing them in precision. Hence they rather explored than investigated. Col. Vyse's work, carried on by Mr. Perring, was of the same nature, and no accurate measurement or triangulation was attempted by these energetic blasters and borers; their discoveries were most valuable, but their researches were always of a rough-and-ready character. The Prussian Expedition sought with ardour for inscriptions, but did not advance our knowledge of technical skill, work, or accuracy, though we owe to it the best topographical map of Gizeh. When Professor Smyth went to Gizeh he introduced different and scientific methods of inquiry in his extensive measurements, afterwards receiving the gold medal of the Royal Society of Edinburgh in recognition of his labours. But he did not attempt the heaviest work of accurate triangulation. Mr. Waynman Dixon, C.E., followed in his steps, in taking further measurements of the inside of the Great Pyramid. Mr. Gill—now Astronomer Royal at the Cape—when engaged in Egypt in the Transit Expedition of 1874, made the next step, by beginning a survey of the Great Pyramid base, in true geodetic style. This far surpassed all previous work in its accuracy, and was a noble result of the three days' labour that he and Professor Watson were able to spare for it. When I was engaged in reducing this triangulation for Mr. Gill in 1879, he impressed on me the need of completing it if I could, by continuing it round the whole pyramid, as two of the corners were only just reached by it without any check.
When, after preparations extending over some years, I settled at Gizeh during 1880-2, I took with me, therefore, instruments of the fullest accuracy needed for the work; probably as fine as any private instruments of the kind. The triangulation was with these performed quite independently of previous work; it was of a larger extent, including the whole hill; and it comprised an abundance of checks. The necessary excavations were carried out to discover the fiducial points of the buildings, unseen for thousands of years. The measurements previously taken were nearly all checked, by repeating them with greater accuracy, and, in most cases, more frequency; and fresh and more refined methods of measurement were adopted. The tombs around the pyramids were all measured, where they had any regularity and were accessible. The methods of workmanship were investigated, and materials were found illustrating the tools employed and the modes of using them.
For a detailed statement of what was urgently wanted on these subjects, I cannot do better than quote from a paper by Professor Smyth,\* entitled, "Of the Practical Work still necessary for the Recovery of the Great Pyramid's ancient, from its modern, dimensions"; and add marginal notes of what has now been accomplished.
"As my measures referred chiefly to the interior of the structure, and as there the original surfaces have not been much broken, the virtual restoration of that part has been by no means unsuccessful; and requires merely in certain places—places which can only be recognised from time to time as the theory of the building shall advance—still more minutely exact measures than any which I was able to make, but which will be comparatively easy to a scientific man going there in future with that one special object formally in view."
"The exterior, however, of the Great building, is exceedingly dilapidated, and I have few or no measures of my own to set forth for its elucidation. That subject is, therefore, still "to let"; and as it is too vast for any private individual to undertake at his own cost, I may as well explain here the state of the case, so that either Societies or Governments may see the propriety of their taking up the grand architectural and historical problem, and prosecuting it earnestly until a successful solution of all its parts shall have been arrived at."
"Size and Shape, then, of the ancient exterior of the Great Pyramid, are the first desiderata to be determined."
(A statement of the various measurements of the base here follows.)
"As preparatory, then, to an efficient remeasurement of the length of the Base-sides of the Great Pyramid, itself an essential preliminary to almost all other Pyramidological researches, I beg to submit the following local particulars."
" (1.) The outer corners of four shallow sockets, cut in the levelled surface of the earth-fast rock outside the present dilapidated corners of the built Great Pyramid, are supposed to be the points to be measured between horizontally in order to obtain the original length of each external, finished, 'casing-stone' base-side."
" (2.) Previous to any such measurement being commenced, the present outer corners of those sockets must be reduced to their ancient corners, as the sockets have suffered, it is feared, much dilapidation and injury, even since 1865; owing to having been then imperfectly covered over, on leaving them, by the parties who at that time opened them."
" (3.) The said sockets must be proved to have been the sockets originally holding the corner stones of the casing; or showing how far they overlapped, and therefore and thereby not defining the ancient base of the Great Pyramid to the amount so overlapped.
the ground should be cleared far and wide about each corner to see if there are any other sockets in the neighbourhood."
" (4.) Whether any more rival sockets claiming to be the true corner sockets of the ancient base are, or are not, then and in that manner, found,—the usually known or selected ones should further be tested, by being compared with any other remaining indications of where the line of each base-side stood in former days. Some particular and most positive indications of this kind we know were found by Col. Howard Vyse in the middle of the Northern side; and there is no reason why as good markings should not be discovered, if properly looked for, along the other three sides; and they are so vitally important to a due understanding of the case, that their ascertainment should precede any expense being incurred on the measurement of lengths from socket to socket."
" (5.) Col. H. Vyse found those invaluable markings of the line of the North base-side, or part of the very base-side itself, by accomplishing the heavy work of digging down by a cross cut, through the middle of the heap of rubbish, near 50 feet high, on that side. But he has published no records of how those markings, or that actual portion of the base-side, agree, either in level or in azimuth with the sockets. Indeed, he left the ground in such a state of hillock and hole, that no measures can, or ever will, be taken with creditable accuracy until a longitudinal cut through the rubbish heap shall be driven from East to West and all along between the two N.E. and N.W. sockets."
" (6.) The making of such a long and laborious cut, and then the 'lining' and 'levelling' of the bases of the Colonel's casing stones in situ (or their remains, for they are said to have been mischievously broken up since then), and their comparison with the sockets or their joining lines by appropriate and powerful surveying instruments, should be the first operation of the new measurers, to whom, it is fervently to be hoped, an intelligent Government will grant the due means for effecting it satisfactorily."
" (7.) A similar longitudinal cut, and similar comparisons are to be made in the other base-side hills of rubbish, together with a wider clearing away of the rubbish outside, in order to determine the form and proportion of the 'pavement' which is believed to have anciently surrounded the Pyramid; but of which the only positive information which we have, is based on the little bit of it which Col. H. Vyse cut down to near the middle of the North side."
"This work might cost from £12,000 to £14,000; for the material to be cut through is not only extensive but so hard and concreted that it turns and bends the hoes or picks employed in Nile cultivation, and which are the only tools the Arabs know of. But besides the theoretical value of such an operation for distinguishing and identifying the base to be measured, it would certainly yield practically abundant fragments of casing stones, and perhaps settle the oft-mooted questions of ancient inscriptions on the outer surface of the Pyramid."
" (8.) When the four sides of the base, and the corresponding sides of the pavement are exposed to view, a new fixation of the exact original places of the precise outer corners of the now dilapidated and rather expanded corner sockets may be required; and then, from and between such newly fixed points, there must be
A. Linear measures of distance taken with first-rate accuracy.
B. Levellings.
D. Astronomical measures to test the orientation of each of the base sides.
C. Horizontal angles, to test the squareness of the base.
E. Angular and linear measures combined to obtain both the vertical slope of the ancient Pyramid flanks, and the distance of certain of the present joints of the entrance passage from the ancient external surface of the Pyramid in the direction of that passage produced—a matter which is at present very doubtful, but a new and good determination of which is essential to utilize fully the numerous internal observations contained in this and other books."
" (9.) When all the above works shall have been carefully accomplished, the men who have performed them will doubtless have become the most competent advisers as to what should be undertaken next; whether in search of the fourth chamber, concerning whose existence there is a growing feeling amongst those who have studied certain laws of area and cubic contents which prevail among the presently known chambers and passages; or for the more exact measurement of certain portions of the building which shall then be recognised by the theory as of fiducial character and importance."
"(10.) Should the next remeasurement unfortunately not be under sufficiently favourable auspices or powerful patronage enough to attempt all that has been sketched out above—I would suggest to those employed upon it the importance of endeavouring to operate in that manner on at least the north side of the Great Pyramid alone, where much of the work has been already performed, and where traces of the old base-side are known to exist, or did certainly exist 34 years ago."
"(11.) The levels as well as temperatures of water in the wells of the plain close to the Pyramid, and in the Nile in the distance, should also be measured through a full twelvemonth interval. A meteorological journal should likewise be kept for the same period at the base of the Pyramid, and the corrections ascertained to reduce it either to the summit or King's chamber levels above, or to the plain level below; while no efforts should be spared to re-open the ventilating channels of the King's chamber and to prevent the Arabs from filling them up again."
" (12.) An examination should be made of the apparent Pyramid in the desert almost west of the Great Pyramid; likewise of the Notes of work, 1880-2.
northern coasts of Egypt, where they are cut by the Great Pyramid's several meridian and diagonal lines produced; also of the fourth dynasty remains in the Sinaitic Peninsula; and of any monuments whatever, whether in Egypt or the neighbouring countries for which any older date than that of the Great Pyramid can reasonably be assigned; including also a fuller account than any yet published of King Shafre's Tomb and its bearings with, or upon, the origin, education, labours and life of the first of the Pyramid builders."
To carry out, therefore, the work sketched in the above outline, and to investigate several collateral points, I settled at Gizeh in December, 1880, and lived there till the end of May, 1881; I returned thither in the middle of October that year, and (excepting two months up the Nile, and a fortnight elsewhere), lived on there till the end of April, 1882; thus spending nine months at Gizeh. Excellent accommodation was to be had in a rock-hewn tomb, or rather three tombs joined together, formerly used by Mr. Waynman Dixon, C.E.; his door and shutters I strengthened; and fitting up shelves and a hammock bedstead, I found the place as convenient as anything that could be wished. The tombs were sheltered from the strong and hot south-west winds, and preserved an admirably uniform temperature; not varying beyond 5 8° to 6 4° F. during the winter, and only reaching 8 0° during three days of hot wind, which was at 9 6° to 1 0 0° outside.
I was happy in having Ali Gabri,* the faithful servant of Prof. Smyth, Mr. Dixon, and Mr. Gill; his knowledge of all that has been done at Gizeh during his lifetime is invaluable; and his recollections begin with working at four years old, as a tiny basket carrier, for Howard Vyse in 1837. He was a greater help in measuring than many a European would have been; and the unmechanical Arab mind had, by intelligence and training, been raised in his case far above that of his neighbours. In out-door work where I needed two pair of hands, he helped me very effectually; but the domestic cares of my narrow home rested on my own shoulders. The usual course of a day's work was much as follows: Lighting my petroleum stove, the kettle boiled up while I had my bath; then breakfast time was a reception hour, and as I sat with the tomb door open, men and children used to look in as they passed; often a friend would stop for a chat, while I hastily brewed some extra cups of coffee in his honour, on the little stove behind the door; Ali also generally came up, and sat doubled up in the doorway, as only an Arab can fold together. After this, starting out about nine o'clock, with Ali carrying part of the instruments, I went to work on the triangulation or measurements; if triangulating, it was Ali's business to hold an umbrella so as to shade the theodolite from the sun all day—the observer took his chance; if measuring, I generally did not require assistance, and worked alone, and I always had to get on as well as I could during Ali's dinner hour.
At dusk I collected the things and packed up; often the taking in of the triangulation signals was finished by moonlight, or in the dark. Then, when all was safely housed in my tomb, Ali was dismissed to his home, and about six or seven o'clock I lit my stove, and sat down to reduce observations. Dinner then began when the kettle boiled, and was spun out over an hour or two, cooking and feeding going on together. Brown ship-biscuit, tinned soups, tomatoes (excellent in Egypt), tapioca, and chocolate, were found to be practically the most convenient and sustaining articles; after ten hours' work without food or drink, heavy food is not suitable; and the great interruption of moving instruments, and breaking up work for a midday meal was not admissible. Then, after washing up the dishes (for Arab ideas of cleanliness cannot be trusted), I sat down again to reducing observations, writing, &c., till about midnight. Ali's slave, Muhammed the negro, and his nephew, little Muhammed, used to come up about nine o'clock, and settle in the next tomb to sleep as guards, safely locked in. Having a supply of candle provided for them, they solaced themselves with indescribable tunes on reed pipes; often joining in duets with Abdallah, the village guard, who used to come up for a musical evening before beginning his rounds. Very often the course of work was different; sometimes all out-door work was impossible, owing to densely sand-laden winds, which blew the grit into everything—eyes, nose, ears, mouth, pockets, and watches. During the excavations I turned out earlier—about sunrise; and after setting out the men's work, returned for breakfast later on in the morning. On other occasions, when working inside the Great Pyramid, I always began in the evening, after the travellers were clean away, and then went on till midnight, with Ali nodding, or even till eight o'clock next morning; thus occasionally working twenty-four hours at a stretch, when particular opportunities presented themselves. The tomb I left furnished, as I inhabited it, in charge of Ali Gabri, and not having been looted in the late revolt, it will, I hope, be useful to any one wishing to carry on researches there, and applying to Dr. Grant Bey for permission to use the furniture.
My best thanks are due to M. Maspero, the Director of Antiquities, for the facilities he accorded to me in all the excavations I required, kindly permitting me to work under his firman; and also for information on many points. It is much to be hoped that the liberal and European policy he has introduced may flourish, and that it may overcome the old Oriental traditions and ways that clogged the Department of Antiquities. Excepting Arab help, I worked almost entirely single-handed; but I had for a time the pleasure of the society of two artists: Mr. Arthur Melville, staying with me for a week in May, 1881, and kindly helping in a preliminary measure of my survey base, and in an accurate levelling up to the Great Pyrainid entrance; and Mr. Tristram Ellis, staying with me for a fortnight in March and April, 1882, and giving me most valuable help in points where accuracy was needed, laying aside the brush to recall his former skill with theodolite and measure.
Thus working together, we measured the base of survey (reading to 1⁄100 th inch) five times, in early dawn, to avoid the sunshine; we levelled up the Great Pyramid, and down again (reading to 1⁄100 th inch); took the dip of the entrance passage to the bottom of it, and gauged its straightness throughout; took the azimuth of the ascending passages round Mamun's hole; callipered the sides of the coffer all over, at every 6 inches, and raised the coffer (weighing about 3 tons), by means of a couple of crowbars, to 8 inches above the floor, in order to measure the bottom of it. For the instrumental readings, in these cases, Mr. Ellis preferred, however, that I should be responsible, excepting where simultaneous readings were needed, as for the base length, and in Mamun's hole. To Mr. Ellis I am also indebted for the novel view of the Pyramids, showing the nine at once, which forms the frontispiece of this work.
To Dr. Grant Bey I owe much, both for occasional help at the Pyramid, in visiting the chambers of construction, the well, &c.; and also for his unvarying kindness both in health and sickness, realizing the conventional Arab phrase, "My house is thy house." Further, I should mention the kind interest and advice of General Stone Pasha, who gave me many hints from his intimate knowledge of the country; and also the very friendly assistance of our ViceConsul, Mr. Raph. Borg, both in procuring an order for my residence and protection at Gizeh, and in prosecuting an inquiry into a serious robbery and assault on me, committed by the unruly soldiery in October, 1881; unhappily, this inquiry was a fruitless task apparently, as the military influence was too strong in the examination.
And now I must not forget my old friend Shekh Omar, of the Pyramid village, shrewd, sharp, and handsome; nor how anxious he was to impress on me that though some people of base and grovelling notions worked for money, and not for their "good name," he wished to work for fame alone; and as he had no doubt I should make a big book, he hoped that I should contract with him for excavations, and give him a good name. I gratified him with one contract, but finding that it cost many times as much as hiring labourers directly, and was not sufficiently under control, the arrangement was not repeated; but I will say that I found him the most respectable man to deal with on the Pyramid hill, excepting, of course, my servant Ali Gabri, who was equally anxious about his good name, though too true a gentleman to talk much about it. The venerable Abu Talib and the loquacious Ibrahim, shekhs of the Pyramid guides, also conducted themselves properly, and Ibrahim seemed honestly genial and right-minded in his words and acts, and knew what so few Arabs do know—how not to obtrude.
The rank and file of the guides—so familiar, with their little stocks of antikas in the corners of old red handkerchiefs—reckoned that I was free of the place, having Ali for my servant; they never gave me the least trouble, or even whispered the omnipresent word bakhshish, but were as friendly as possible on all occasions, many claiming a hand-shaking and a hearty greeting. My impression of a year's sojourn with Arabs is favourable to them; only it is necessary to keep the upper hand, to resist imposition with unwearied patience, to be fair, and occasionally liberal in dealings, and to put aside Western reserve, and treat them with the same familiarity to which they are accustomed between different classes. With such intercourse I have found them a cheerful, warm-hearted, and confiding people.
CHAPTER II.
INSTRUMENTS.
THE list of instruments employed was as follows :
<tr><th>A*
Standard scale, steel
100 inches long, divided to 1 inch.
B*
Steel tape
1,200
"
"
"
C
Steel chain
1,000
"
"
"
D
Pine poles, a pair 1 inch diameter
"
"
"
E*
Pine rods, a pair 1 × 2 inches
"
"
I
"
F*
Pine rods, 10 of ½ × I
"
"
I
"
(Jointing together into two lengths of 250 each.)
G*
Pine rods for levelling
{3 of ½ × 2 inches
"
"
I
"
2 ", ½ × I
"
"
I
"
2 ", ½ × I
40 and 20
"
"
I
"
H*
Pine rods,
2 ", ½ × I
40 and 20
"
"
I
"
J
Box on mahogany rods,
2 of 1 × I
"
"
1/10
"
K
Boxwood scale,
1·25 × 13
"
"
1/80
"
L
Steel scale,
1·07 × 04
"
"
1/10
"
M*
Ivory scales,
2 of 1·18 × 08
"
"
1/70
"
N*
Boxwood scale,
1·18 × 08
"
"
1/60
"
O*
Gun metal scale,
1·06 × 09
"
"
1/50
"
P*
Ivory scale,
1·0 × 08
"
"
1/40
"
Q Double calipers, 72 inches long.
R Supports for catenary measurement by tape and chain.
S 10 thermometers for scale temperatures
a Theodolite { 10 inch circle, divisions 5′ , vernier 3 ′′ } telescope × 35.
c Theodolite by Troughton \left\{ \begin{array}{l l l l l} 4 i n c h c i r c l e, & , & 3 0′, & , & I′ \\ 4 s e m i c i r c l e, & , & 3 0′, & , & I′ \end{array} \right\} telescope × 8.
d Box sextant by Troughton { 1.64 inch radius, division 30′ , vernier I′.
e Hand level in brass case.
f Gun metal protractor, by Troughton, 5'9 diam., divisions 30′.
g Mahogany goniometer, 11 and 9 inch limbs.
h Queen's chamber air channel goniometer.
j Sheet steel square, 35 and 45 inches in the sides.
k Folding wooden tripod stand, old pattern.
1 Rigid tripod stand, 30 inches high, octahedral.
n Rigid iron tripod, 12 ,
0 12 signals, with plumb bobs.
The above were all used, most of them continually; a few other instruments were also taken out, but were not needed.
Several of these instruments were of new or unusual patterns, which—as well as various fittings adapted to them—require some explanation. The dimensions are all in inches.
A. The steel standard and straight-edge was on a new principle, employing the stiffness of a tube to maintain the straightness of a strip. It was skilfully executed by Mr. Munroe, of King's Cross. A steel tube, 102 inches long, 20 diam., and 06 thick (see Fig. 1, Pl. xv.) was supported at the two neutral points, 20.8 per cent. from the ends, resting on two feet at one point and one at the other. This tube carried a series of 15 flat beds, all dressed exactly to a straight line when the tube rested on its supports. These beds supported the actual standard, which was formed of three independent strips of steel, each 34 inches long, 20 wide, and 1 thick, butting end to end. These strips bore on the upper face, along the front edge, very fine graduations, the lines being about 1000 wide. To ascertain the mean temperature throughout the whole length of the standard, a rod of zinc was screwed tightly to one end of the standard, and bore a scale divided to {200} ths at the other end; the scale rising through a slot in the standard. The value of the divisions for various temperatures was carefully ascertained. As this standard was also a straight-edge, the edges of the three strips were all true straight lines, with a mean error of {1200} th inch; and the edges were brought into one continuous straight line by adjusting screws set in the supporting beds, at the ends of the back edge of each strip. The object of having three separate strips was that they could be dismounted for independent use in measuring or drawing, and for testing each other's straightness; that unequal heating of one edge should not cause as much distortion, in length or straightness, as if it were in one continuous piece; and that the weight should not be too great for the rigidity, in handling it when detached from the supports. The principle of separating the stiff part from the actual scale was adopted in order to use the regular drawn weldless steel tube, which is the stiffest thing for its weight that can be had, and also to prevent any unequal heating warping the straightness, as the tube was boxed in by a thin wooden sheath, and so was sheltered far more than the scale could be. The minor details were that strips were held down by screws with countersunk heads, bearing on steel spring washers; and they were pressed home against each other's ends, and also against the back adjusting screws, by diagonally acting springs. Along the front of the tube were projecting screws, nutted on and adjusted to form a right angle with the face of the strip; so that the standard could be applied to any surface exactly at right angles.
The value of the divisions was ascertained by comparison with a brass standard scale. This scale was tested by Capt. Kater in 1820, 1824, 1830, and 1831; and by the Standards Department in 1875 (see a report on it in the Report of the Warden of the Standards, 1875, Appendix x., pp. 36-41): as the steel standard was sufficient for comparisons, this scale was not taken to Egypt for fear of injury. The form of this brass standard is a bar, 42· 14 long, 1· 58 wide, 1· 17 thick; bearing a scale of 41 inches in length, divided to 1 inch, with a vernier of 1⁄1000 ths, and also bearing a metre divided to millimetres. The steel standard was ascertained, by means of this brass standard, to be exact at 19· 6° cent.; and the mean error of graduation and reading combined was 0002, the greatest error being 0005. By the intermediary of a steel tape, the steel standard was further compared with the public Trafalgar Square standard; and according to that it was 1 in 60,000 longer, or true length at 17· 8° cent., or a difference of 021 on the length of the public standard, after allowing for the published error of 019 inch. This is a guarantee that the length of the tape, which was used to transfer from the steel standard to the public standard, has no greater error than this; and, on the whole, I should place as much, or rather more, confidence in the series of comparisons between the Imperial, the brass, the steel standard, and the steel tape, made under the best circumstances indoors, rather than in comparisons between the steel tape, the Trafalgar Square standard, and certain steel rod measures, made in the open air, with wind and varying temperature. The difference in any case is immaterial, in regard to any of the points measured, in the present inquiry.
B. The steel tape was over 100 feet long, 37 inch wide, and 008 thick, and weighed just over a pound. It was coiled on an unusually large drum (4.2 diam.), to avoid any chance of permanent distortion. Etched divisions, in the ordinary style, being too ill-defined, I had an unmarked length of tape, and divided it by fine cut lines at every 50 inches; the position of each line was shown by heating the steel to brown oxidation, and marking the number out of the brown by acid. It was found on trial that such lines did not weaken a piece of tape, even when it was violently twisted and wrenched; and that the steel, being hard drawn and not tempered, nothing under red heat softened it. The cuts were not put on with any special care, as their exact value was to be ascertained; but the worst error throughout was 0098, the mean error 0039 inch, and the total length true at 19.8° cent. This comparison was made when the tape was lying unstretched, on a flat surface, as ascertained by measuring successive 100-inch lengths on the steel standard. It stretched 0127 per lb. on the whole length of 1,200 inches.
C. The steel chain of 1,000 inches I made on an entirely new pattern; and it proved, both in Egypt, and, some years before, at Stonehenge, to be very handy in use. The links are each 20 inches long, made of wire 092 diam., this being as thin as can be used with fair care.
The eyes (see Fig. 3, Pl. xv.) are wide enough to fold up one in the other, without any intermediate rings. They are rhomboidal, so that they cannot hitch one on the other, but will always slip down when pulled; and the internal curvature of the end of the eye is only just greater than that of the section of the wire, so that the linkage is sure when in use to come to its maximum length.* The junction of the eye is made with a long lapping piece, cut one-third away, and tinned to the stem. The whole was tested with 100 lbs. pull, to bring it to its bearings, before marking the divisions. The exact length of the links is unimportant, as, after the chain was made and stretched, a narrow collar of sheet copper was soldered about the middle of each link, the collars being adjusted to exactly 20 inches apart. Besides this, each link bore its own number, marked by a broad collar of copper for each 100, and a narrow collar for each 20 inches or link; thus, at 340 inches there were three broad and two narrow collars by the side of the central dividing mark on the link. These collars were put towards one end of the link, apart from the dividing mark, and counted from each end up to the middle, as usual. The central eye of the chain was not tinned up, but was held by a slip clutch; thus the chain could be separated into two 500-inch lengths if needed, each complete in itself, as for base lines for offsets. The handles were kept separately, hooking into any link at which accurate readings under tension might be needed. They were of the same wire as the chain, with wooden cross-bars. One of them included an inverted spring (see Fig. 2, Pl. xv.), so that the pull compressed the spring. When the pull reached 10 lbs., a small catch (not shown in the Figure) sprang out from the stem, and caught the coils. This left only a very small amount of play; and hence, when using it, the regulation of the tension did not require to be looked at, but was felt by the finger when at 10 lbs. pull.
The advantages of this pattern are: (1) Great lightness and compactness of the chain, as it only weighs 2 1⁄2 lbs., and forms a sheaf 1 1⁄2 inch diam.; (2) consequent small error by catenary curves, and ease of carrying it clear of the ground by its two ends; (3) accuracy of the divisions; (4) freedom from errors in the linkage; (5) that no counting of the links is required, each being numbered; and (6) that standard tension can be maintained by touch, while the eyes are used on reading the chain length. The worst error of division was 03, the average error 01, and the total length, with 10 lbs. tension, true at 1 5 · 8° cent.; the stretching 01 per lb. on the 1,000-inch total length.
…